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Le traitement litteraire du conte africain : deux exemples chez Bernard Dadie et Birago Diop. 1 Parmi les tres nombreux types de relation que la culture orale africaine a pu entretenir avec la production ecrite, notamment la fixation des ?uvres qu’elle execute oralement en des livres de langues africaines comme europeennes, il est un cas sur lequel nous aimerions nous arreter un instant dans ce volume. Social Studies Projects! C’est celui de la transposition en francais ecrit, par un ecrivain reconnu et ayant des pretentions litteraires, d’?uvres orales dites originellement dans une langue africaine. Appendix Layout! Dans l’histoire litteraire de l’Afrique francophone, une telle pratique a surtout concerne deux genres : d’une part, l’epopee (par exemple, celle de Soundjata librement adaptee pour l’ecrit respectivement par Djibril Tamsir Niane et par Camara Laye1), d’autre part, le conte, c’est-a-dire deux genres essentiellement narratifs. Find Social! Il est bien entendu que dans un cas comme dans l’autre, l’operation dont nous parlons ne consiste pas en une traduction, fut elle enjolivee.

Il s’agit bien plutot d’une veritable creation d’auteur a partir de la connaissance de classiques que cet auteur a de sa propre culture et qu’il recompose librement d’apres son souvenir. Dissertation Appendix! Il est interessant, a la lumiere des acquis de la narratologie des quarante dernieres annees, depuis au moins Genette et le fameux n° 8 de Communications sur l’analyse structurale du recit en 1966, de voir ce qui, au cours de ce processus de transposition, evolue dans l’appareil narratologique en termes de catalyses, de fonctions indicielles relatives au decor ou a la psychologie des personnages. 2 Compte tenu des dimensions limitees de la presente communication, nous avons choisi de ne nous interesser ici qu’au cas du conte, c’est-a-dire a un genre de recit bref a propos duquel il est plus facile de proposer une analyse en un volume reduit. Find Social Studies Projects! Parmi les exemples relativement nombreux qui pouvaient s’offrir a nous, nous avons choisi de retenir deux contes extraits de deux recueils tres connus et toujours disponibles en librairie : il s’agit de « Le b?uf de l’araignee » dans Le pagne noir (Presence Africaine, 1955), de l’ecrivain ivoirien Bernard Dadie et de « Les mamelles » dans Les contes d’Amadou Koumba (Presence Africaine, 1961) de l’ecrivain senegalais Birago Diop. Dissertation Appendix! Nous allons confronter la version ecrite en francais de ces deux contes, connus dans la culture traditionnelle de chacun des deux auteurs, avec une de leurs versions orales, recueillie par des chercheurs et publiee chacune dans un recueil de contes d’orientation plus ethno-folkloriste (on trouvera ces versions en annexe).

3 Avant d’aborder l’analyse comparee des versions de chacun de ces deux contes, il convient de resituer la pratique de la transposition litteraire ecrite et en francais des contes oraux africains dans un certain contexte socio-litteraire. Social Projects! Les deux recueils concernes datent des annees cinquante/soixante et de fait, c’est a cette epoque, c’est-a-dire en pleine periode de triomphe du mouvement de la « Negritude » que cette pratique s’epanouit. Writing Service! Il s’agit pour beaucoup d’ecrivains et d’intellectuels africains (J. Studies! Malonga, J. Difficult Situation! Brahim Seid, Boubou Hama, etc.) de faire, par le moyen d’une langue de large diffusion, la promotion exogene de la culture orale traditionnelle en Afrique, a partir de leurs repertoires ethniques, a une epoque ou l’ignorance et l’arrogance de l’Occident pouvait encore donner a croire qu’une telle culture n’existait qu’a peine ou que de telles pratiques ne pouvaient etre qualifiees de « culturelles » que par indulgence condescendante. Find Social! Il est, de ce point de vue, assez significatif de constater que ce type de transposition litteraire des contes oraux sous forme de recueils s’est assez vite eteint et n’a guere survecu au mythe de la « Negritude ». Doctoral Dissertation Help! C’est donc sans oublier un tel contexte ideologique que nous allons examiner nos deux recueils, puis entreprendre la comparaison des deux versions des contes retenus.

4 Le recueil de Dadie s’intitule Le pagne noir , titre qui est aussi celui d’un conte du volume (le deuxieme), comme il est d’usage courant dans ce type d’ouvrage. Find Social Studies Projects! Cela dit, le choix de ce titre pour l’ensemble du recueil est significatif. Volunteer! Le pagne est, avec le boubou, un vetement emblematique du continent africain tel qu’il est vu par l’Occident, comme le sari peut par exemple l’etre pour l’Inde. Social Projects! Sa qualite meme d’objet textile renvoie en outre par metaphore a l’idee de texte – on difficult situation sait qu’il s’agit de la meme etymologie – d’autant qu’il existe aussi en plusieurs cultures locales des analogies symboliques entre le deroulement de la parole et le tissage. Find Social Studies! Ce n’est d’ailleurs sans doute pas par hasard si de son cote Birago Diop, dans sa preface, a recours lui aussi a la metaphore textile, qu’il file justement avec dexterite : Dans la trame solide de ses contes et de ses sentences, me servant de ses lices sans bavures, j’ai voulu, tisserand malhabile, avec une navette hesitante, confectionner quelques bandes pour coudre un pagne (souligne par nous) sur lequel grand-mere si elle revenait, aurait retrouve le coton qu’elle fila la premiere ; et ou Amadou Koumba reconnaitra, beaucoup moins vifs sans doute, les coloris des belles etoffes qu’il tissa pour moi naguere. 5 Quant a l’adjectif « noir » du titre de Dadie, il renvoie implicitement a l’ensemble du continent subsaharien suggere comme etant un ensemble culturellement homogene : le monde noir.

Il s’agit bien entendu d’un mythe, meme si le conte est un genre qui voyage beaucoup et dont on essay than retrouve souvent les types et les motifs d’une societe a une autre. Find Social! Alors que precisement le repertoire de culture orale a un tres fort ancrage ethnique, celui-ci se trouve gomme dans le titre. Dissertation Layout! Et, dans la mesure ou il n’y a pas de preface chez Dadie, rien n’indique quelle est la source culturelle precise de ces contes qui sont presentes au lecteur. Find Social Studies! Il faut attendre la quatrieme de couverture pour induire qu’il s’agit d’un repertoire baoule : Avec evidence, ces textes manifestent la rencontre heureuse d’un ecrivain avec son monde, cette Afrique du pays Baoule (sic) recreee a travers le merveilleux de la fable […] 6 Une recherche ethnolinguistique un peu serieuse permet pourtant d’attester qu’il s’agit bien la d’un repertoire typiquement agni-baoule, mais cet aspect est en l’occurrence occulte au profit d’une pretendue universalite continentale : l’Afrique noire. 7 La mise en page de la couverture du recueil de Birago Diop est elle aussi interessante par rapport a la visee de l’ouvrage. Dissertation Appendix Layout! Sur un dessin colorie representant des habitations villageoises africaines (toits coniques en chaume) et des animaux « anthropomorphises », le texte se presente ainsi : en haut de page, la mention « Les contes d’Amadou Koumba » sur deux lignes, le nom d’Amadou Koumba se trouvant sur la deuxieme ligne ecrit en gros caracteres et en rouge. Find Projects! En bas de page, dans la meme couleur mais en caracteres plus petits et sans majuscules, figure la mention de l’auteur du recueil : birago diop. Doctoral History! Du point de vue semiotique, une telle politique n’est pas innocente.

Lorsque le lecteur apprend dans la preface qu’Amadou Koumba est un « griot », c’est-a-dire un artiste de la parole, sorte de pendant symbolique de l’ecrivain dans la culture ecrite, et que c’est lui qui, apres sa grand’mere, a raconte a l’auteur les contes qui figurent dans le recueil, on Find social comprend mieux la relation entre les deux noms, de meme couleur qui figurent sur la couverture. College Essay Valuable Than! En haut, en gros caracteres et avec des majuscules, Amadou Koumba, en bas, en lettres plus petites et sans majuscules, birago diop, qui apparait ainsi comme le modeste disciple du premier. Find! Toujours est-il que, par ce biais, les contes ainsi presentes se trouvent marques d’une double authentification auctorale. 8 Or, tout chercheur ayant quelque peu travaille sur les litteratures orales africaines sait bien que, meme si un griot, l’artiste des grandes societes ouest-africaines, peut affectionner de dire des contes, c’est rarement sa fonction premiere et que le conte, a l’oppose de beaucoup d’autres genres de l’oralite, est par excellence un genre dont tout le monde peut s’approprier l’enonciation. Dissertation! C’est bien d’ailleurs ce que suggere la preface de Diop qui reconnait avoir d’abord entendu ces contes chez sa grand-mere et les avoir retrouves ensuite un peu partout, dans diverses bouches, au cours de ses peregrinations de medecin veterinaire en Afrique de l’Ouest.

Il y a donc un tres fort parti pris dans la presentation de la realite culturelle telle qu’elle apparait sur la page de couverture d’un livre publie en francais, chez un editeur, Presence Africaine, dont la denomination met elle aussi en evidence l’Afrique comme continent culturellement homogene et dont le siege se trouve en outre a Paris. Projects! Dans l’optique de promotion culturelle que nous avons evoquee a cette epoque, une telle strategie semble viser d’abord un public occidental, de culture ecrite, pour qui une production verbale n’a de statut culturel veritablement valorise qu’a partir du moment ou on layout lui reconnait un createur identifiable. Find Social Projects! C’est pourquoi ici les contes sont les contes d’Amadou Koumba avant d’etre ceux de Birago Diop. A Good College Essay Valuable Money! Ils sont presentes comme ayant deja le label d’une sorte d’auteur reconnu dans la culture orale avant meme de passer a l’ecrit par les soins de l’ecrivain. 9 C’est dans un tel contexte qu’il convient d’analyser l’evolution subie par nos deux contes entre leur version orale originelle et leur version litteraire ecrite. Find Studies Projects! Commencons par « Le b?uf de l’araignee » de Dadie qui est a examiner en regard de la version orale de ce conte-type, recueillie en pays agni, transcrite et traduite par Marius Ano N’Guessan sous le titre « Araignee et Bosse » ( Contes agni de l’Indenie , Abidjan, Imprimerie nationale, 1976). Dissertation Appendix Layout! Il est evident que la structure des deux histoires est suffisamment similaire pour qu’on puisse reconnaitre sans aucun doute un meme conte-type dont on social projects peut donner un resume sous une forme susceptible de rendre compte des deux versions dont nous disposons : 10 Dieu a un champ plein de broussailles inextricables et decide de le faire defricher.

Personne ne se presente sauf Araignee2 a qui Dieu promet un b?uf en cas de succes. Mba Essay Difficult Situation! Araignee s’acquitte de la tache et recoit le b?uf en recompense. Studies! Il veut manger son b?uf seul, refusant de le partager meme avec une mouche. Research Proposal Writing Service Learning! Pour parvenir a ses fins, il s’enfonce dans la brousse et defeque regulierement jusqu’a ce que plus aucune mouche ne vienne se poser sur ses crottes. Social! C’est la qu’il abat et prepare son b?uf. Dissertation History! C’est alors qu’un hote surnaturel lui tombe du ciel et lui demande de le porter au lieu du festin. Projects! Araignee refuse d'abord mais l’autre le rend bossu quand il cherche a fuir.

Il l’emmene donc et se prepare ensuite a manger son b?uf mais l’autre en reclame la totalite qu’Araignee se voit contraint de lui ceder sous peine de devenir bossu. Quality Paper Jam! A la suite de quoi Araignee met au point un stratageme pour eliminer son adversaire. Find Studies! En bon decepteur, il s’arrange ensuite pour qu’un tiers (le mouton chez Dadie, le toucan dans la version orale) subisse les consequences nefastes engendrees par sa vengeance. 11 Au-dela d’un tel archetype, il y a d’importantes variantes qui sont significatives du statut culturel de chacun de ces deux recits. A Good Essay Than! Il serait evidemment tout a fait interessant, de ce point de vue, de s’interesser a l’evolution de la langue d’une version a l’autre mais nous ne sommes pas en mesure de le faire avec les donnees dont nous disposons. Studies! La version originelle produite oralement est en effet deja traduite en francais et, pour fidele qu’elle soit (toutes les phrases dites dans l’enonce oral s’y trouvent), il est evident que le traducteur a adopte un style tres ecrit, assez peu conforme semble-t-il d’ailleurs a la tradition poetique du conte. Essay About Volunteer Experience! Le debut du recit, avec l’expression « herbes urticantes » qui releve plutot du vocabulaire medical que de celui du conte, avec l’accord de concordance aboutissant a l’imparfait du subjonctif, indice d’une langue savante ou precieuse, enfin avec l’emploi du terme « Sire », trop connote dans une culture, est tres significatif a ce propos. Projects! Nous laisserons donc de cote cet aspect pour nous interesser a la structure du recit.

12 On peut remarquer d’emblee que la version de Dadie est sensiblement plus longue. Research Service Learning! Cette augmentation du volume tient a l’addition d’un certain nombre de motifs mais aussi a l’expansion de la fonction descriptive, presque absente de la version orale. Social Studies! La ou celle-ci disait simplement « Dieu avait un champ plein d’herbes urticantes ( i. Quality Jam! e . Projects! de mauvaises herbes), le texte de Dadie nous decrit ce champ sur pres de deux pages, avec une accumulation d’adjectifs expressifs et de metaphores qui temoigne d’une recherche d’ecriture selon une conception – certes assez scolaire – du beau style comme on volunteer work experience pouvait encore en avoir a l’epoque : Dieu avait un champ plein de ronces et de broussailles. Projects! Ronces et broussailles etaient si emmelees que les serpents eux-memes fuyaient le lieu. High Paper Jam! […]Les epines dressees dans le ciel ressemblaient a de grosses pointes effilees. Social Studies! Et ronces et broussailles, sous le soleil et la pluie croissaient sans cesse […].Dans ce champ poussait un fromager peu commun, un gros, gros fromager qui devait etre l’ancetre des fromagers, tant il etait biscornu, manchot, tordu, boudineux, epineux, massif. Quality Jam! Quelque chose d’effrayant, de hideux comme arbre. Projects! Les oiseaux sur ce champ jamais ne se posaient. High Paper Jam! Le soleil meme glissait tandis que la brise le contournait (p. Studies Projects! 51). 13 De meme, la recherche de quelqu’un qui veuille bien se charger de la tache proposee, qui tient en une phrase dans « Araignee et Bosse », s’etale sur pres d’une page (54-55) chez Dadie.

Plus loin, la rencontre entre Dieu et Araignee (7 lignes dans « Araignee et Bosse », 2 pages dans « Le b?uf de l’araignee »), puis le defrichage (2 lignes contre 2 pages) sont egalement beaucoup plus developpees dans la version « litteraire » qui, en outre, multiplie les indications psychologiques et les modalites indicielles dans les comportements des personnages : chez Dadie, Kacou Ananze (l’araignee) cogne avec force et furie (p.57), l’enfant de Dieu pleure (p.58), etc. Research Proposal Writing Service Learning! Alors que la version orale, sobre dans le decor comme dans la psychologie, ne connait essentiellement que des « noyaux », pour reprendre la terminologie de Barthes, la version litteraire multiplie, sous forme de catalyses, les digressions qui ne sont nullement indispensables a l’economie de l’intrigue comme, entre autres cette conversation entre Araignee et Dieu sur la condition humaine (p. Find Social Studies Projects! 55). 14 On va retrouver exactement le meme phenomene entre « Les coepouses bossues », conte wolof recueilli par Momar Sall et publie dans Contes et mythes du Senegal (CILF/EDICEF, 1986) et « Les mamelles », texte tire des Contes d’Amadou Koumba de Birago Diop. Research Service! Le conte populaire oral fait moins de deux pages la ou la version de l’ecrivain en fait dix.

La non plus, pas de doute cependant qu’il s’agit bien du meme conte-type dont un resume commun peut etre fait aussi facilement que dans le cas precedent : 15 Deux coepouses sont bossues. Projects! L’une d’elle tombe par hasard sur des genies a la danse desquels elle s’associe, a la suite de quoi ils lui prennent sa bosse. Appendix! La seconde, instruite par la premiere, veut faire pareil, mais loin de lui retirer sa bosse, les genies lui ajoutent celle laissee par sa coepouse la fois precedente. 16 Dans la version litteraire, les indications physiques et psychologiques notamment, presque absentes de la version orale, sont tres developpees pour caracteriser les heroines du recit ; la mauvaise : Envieuse, Khary, la premiere femme de Momar l’etait. Find Studies Projects! Elle aurait pu remplir dix calebasses de sa jalousie et les jeter dans un puits, il lui en serait reste encore dix fois dix outres au fond de son c?ur noir comme du charbon. Edit Difficult! Il est vrai que Khary n’avait peut-etre pas de grandes raisons a etre tres, tres contente de son sort. Find Social Studies! En effet Khary etait bossue. Dissertation Layout! Oh ! Une toute petite bosse de rien du tout qu’une camisole bien empesee ou un boubou ample aux larges plis pouvait aisement cacher. Find! Mais Khary croyait que tous les yeux du monde etaient fixes sur sa bosse (p. Doctoral Dissertation! 33). 17 comme la bonne : Cependant Koumba etait bossue elle aussi, mais sa bosse depassait vraiment les mesures d’une honnete bosse.

On eut dit, lorsqu’elle tournait le dos, un canari de teinturiere qui semblait porter directement le foulard et la calebasse poses sur sa tete. Find Studies Projects! Koumba, malgre sa bosse, etait gaie, douce et aimable. Layout! Quand on social studies projects se moquait de la petite Koumba-Khoughe du temps ou elle jouait, buste nu, en lui demandant de preter un instant le bebe qu’elle avait sur le dos, elle repondait en riant plus fort que les autres : « Ca m’etonnerait qu’il vienne avec toi, il ne veut meme pas descendre pour teter. Photo Paper Jam! » Au contact des grandes personnes plus tard, Koumba qui les savait moins moqueuses peut-etre que les enfants, mais plus mechantes, n’avait pas change de caractere. Find Social! Dans la demeure de son epoux elle restait la meme (p. Research Learning! 35). 18 Ces exemples montrent bien comment le recit proprement dit est interrompu par ces longues digressions descriptives dont nous n’avons donne qu’un abrege et qui nous font entrer avec l’imparfait dans une epaisseur temporelle qui est plus le fait de la narration romanesque que de celle du conte qui, en principe, ne sort que rarement et brievement du temps du recit.

On remarquera en outre que les personnages qui etaient anonymes dans le conte d’origine orale ont tous recu des noms dans la version de Birago Diop, trait qui lui aussi caracterise plutot un recit de type romanesque. 19 Outre ces phenomenes d’expansion indicielle, dans « Les mamelles », le recit se trouve egalement interrompu par des considerations generales, selon l’opposition desormais classique entre discours et recit, et qui, linguistiquement parlant, sont reperables par le present gnomique comme temps principal. Find Projects! Ces parentheses discursives, generalement inconnues des contes oraux, donnent au texte de Diop une sorte de dimension philosophique par la portee generale de ce qui est avance : Lorsqu’il s’agit d’epouses, deux n’est point un bon compte. Doctoral Help History! Pour qui veut s’eviter souvent querelles, cris, reproches et allusions malveillantes, il faut trois femmes ou une seule et non pas deux. Find Social Projects! Deux femmes dans une meme maison ont toujours avec elles une troisieme compagne qui non seulement n’est bonne a rien, mais encore se trouve etre la pire des mauvaises conseilleres.

Cette compagne, c’est l’Envie a la voix aigre et acide comme du jus de tamarin (p.33 ). 20 On retrouvera de meme plus loin (p.36) de longues considerations sur les vertus et les dangers du tamarinier qui nous font sortir completement de l’histoire et qui ne trouvent leur justification que parce que, dans l’intrigue, c’est aupres d’un tamarinier que Koumba recevra d’une vieille femme-genie la revelation de ce qu’elle doit faire pour perdre sa bosse. 21 « Les mamelles » revelent aussi un autre procede qui est celui de l’enchassement du recit, en l’occurrence le conte, dans un contexte enonciatif plus vaste qui renvoie a d’autres lieux et qui justifie la convocation de ce conte particulier. Appendix! Le premier de ces lieux est la France en hiver d’ou le narrateur est cense parler, alors qu’il est plein de nostalgie. Find Projects! Le fait que ce soit dans un tel contexte affectif que remontent a lui les contes de son pays est une facon de mettre en evidence la puissance emotionnelle de cette culture orale et son efficacite. Research! Dans cette evocation on Find retrouvera dans l’ecriture, avec l’abondance des adjectifs et le recours aux images, la meme recherche de « beau style » que nous avions deja notee chez Dadie, indice probable, pour l’auteur, du parler litteraire : Quand la memoire va ramasser du bois mort, elle rapporte le fagot qu’il lui plait…3 L’horizon bouche m’encercle les yeux. A Good Than! Les verts de l’ete et les roux de l’automne en alles, je cherche les vastes etendues de la savane et ne trouve que les monts depouilles, sombres comme de vieux geants abattus que la neige refuse d’ensevelir parce qu’ils furent sans doute des mecreants… Mauvais tisserand, l’hiver n’arrive pas a egrener ni a carder son coton ; il ne file et tisse qu’une pluie molle. Find Social! Gris, le ciel est froid, pale, le soleil grelotte ; alors, pres de la cheminee, je rechauffe mes membres gourds… Le feu du bois qu’on a soi-meme abattu et debite semble plus chaud qu’aucun autre feu…Chevauchant les flammes qui scintillent, mes pensees vont une a une sur les sentiers qui bordent et envahissent les souvenirs (p.

31). 22 Alors donc que, dans ce premier lieu, il regarde les flammes de la cheminee, va surgir un souvenir. Dissertation Help History! Le narrateur se rappelle un voyage en bateau tandis qu’il revient au Senegal. Social Studies Projects! Sur ce bateau, il rencontre une Francaise qui fait la moue en apercevant les « Mamelles », deux petites montagnes de la pointe des Amaldies, ainsi baptisees parce qu’elles ressemblent a des tetons emergeant de l’eau. History! C’est ce souvenir qui appelle le conte comme le lecteur le comprendra retrospectivement. Social! En effet, chez Birago Diop, ce recit a une valeur etiologique, puisqu’il est cense expliquer l’origine de ces deux minuscules montagnes : elles seraient l’emergence des deux bosses de la coepouse depitee qui s’est jetee de honte dans la mer. Research Learning! Ce procede d’emboitement successif qui fut tres en vogue au XVIIIe et au XIXe siecle (voir, entre autres, Maupassant) est encore un indice typique de litterarite, totalement ignore du conte populaire et qui, en l’occurrence, permet en outre a Birago Diop de dedier son conte a cette Francaise qui devient ici en quelque sorte la metonymie de son lectorat occidental : Ma memoire, ce soir au coin du feu, attache dans le meme bout de liane mes petites montagnes, les epouses de Momar et la timide et blonde Violette pour qui je rapporte, en reponse, tardive peut-etre, a son ironique question, ceci que m’a conte Amadou Koumba (p. Find Projects! 33). 23 Mais precisement, on Doctoral dissertation help history voit bien, chez Dadie comme chez Diop, que beaucoup de procedes stylistiques (syntaxe recherchee, adjectifs, metaphores…) ou rhetoriques (longues descriptions du decor, du physique et de la psychologie des personnages, alternance du recit et du discours, procedes d’emboitement) correspondent a des strategies d’ecriture consistant a habiller le conte oral africain selon des normes litteraires de la scripturalite qui le rendent plus consommable et qui le valorisent aux yeux d’un lectorat occidental cense etre habitue a certaines conventions propres a la litterature romanesque. 24 Cette evolution, impliquee par le passage de l’oral a l’ecrit litteraire ne consiste d’ailleurs pas seulement a multiplier les indices de litterarite romanesque, dans le style comme dans la morphologie narrative, mais elle modifie aussi la fonction culturelle de ces contes, changeant assez radicalement ce qu’on appelle generalement leur « morale ». Find Social Studies! Si, par exemple, on edit revient sur le conte-type mettant en scene Araignee et Bosse, on Find peut s’arreter sur plusieurs differences notables qui en changent la perspective. 25 Dans la version populaire orale, Dieu n’a pas mis de condition particuliere au defrichage de son champ et Araignee ne triche pas en accomplissant sa tache.

Il semble donc avoir legitimement merite le b?uf promis. Essay About Volunteer Work Experience! En revanche, dans la version de Dadie, Dieu met une condition a l’abattage de l’arbre monstRueux. Find Studies Projects! Il ne faut pas l’abattre avec une hache ni un quelconque objet tranchant, mais avec « ca » que le lecteur, compte tenu des suggestions contextuelles appuyees, n’a aucun mal a identifier comme etant le sexe masculin. Doctoral Dissertation! Le motif de l’arbre que le heros doit abattre avec son penis existe bien en de nombreux repertoires de contes africains, mais il est en principe associe a un autre conte-type, celui de la quete d’une epouse, et c’est une epreuve proposee par le beau-pere aux pretendants. Projects! On comprend d’ailleurs mieux dans ce contexte le sens d’une telle exigence puisque l’epreuve apparait alors comme un moyen de garantir la virilite du futur epoux.

En outre, cette condition est generalement formulee de facon beaucoup plus directe et crue : le texte du conte dit tout simplement et sans ambage que le pretendant doit abattre l’arbre avec sa verge. Appendix! Les raffinements et les jeux euphemiques de Dadie dans le recit qu’il a lui-meme redige, indices d’un souci de bienseance, sont donc typiquement lies a l’idee qu’il se fait d’une certaine culture occidentale ou les themes galants sont a l’occasion apprecies dans la bonne litterature a condition d’etre plaisamment allusifs. Find Social Projects! Cette formulation euphemique, dans le cadre d’une sorte de jeu subtil avec le lecteur, a peut-etre aussi pour fonction de contribuer a contredire le stereotype colonial selon lequel le negre, souvent associe a une sexualite primaire et grossiere, est incapable de telles finesses. 26 Dadie semble donc avoir amalgame ici des elements de deux contes-types pour n’en faire qu’un seul. High Quality Paper! Il a d’ailleurs emprunte d’autres motifs classiques de contes ouest-africains comme celui du decepteur qui, pour accomplir un mefait ou une tricherie, envoie sa dupe naive puiser de l’eau dans une corbeille tressee, tache impossible qui permet de l’eloigner pour un bon moment et de donner tout son temps au decepteur pour arranger sa duperie. Projects! Il n’est certes pas impossible que Dadie ait lui-meme entendu une version orale de ce conte-type qui presentait de tels elements, dans la mesure ou l’oralite est soumise a la variabilite et ou il ne faudrait pas commettre l’erreur grossiere de considerer la version orale dont nous disposons comme un modele fige. A Good Money! Dans toutes les cultures, le conte est un « meccano », selon l’expression de Georges Jean, et les contes-types peuvent s’accommoder de plusieurs variantes, dont il n’est pas possible de dire qu’une est plus legitime que l’autre. Find Social Studies! Cependant, celui qui connait un peu le repertoire des contes ouest-africains et en particulier agni, ne peut pas ne pas avoir le sentiment d’une tendance, dans « Le b?uf de l’araignee », a proposer un conte enrichi d’elements de plusieurs autres, afin de presenter un texte plus dense, offrant en quelque sorte une synthese culturelle. 27 En outre, cette addition d’une condition mise par Dieu au defrichage du champ modifie le sens de la mesaventure vecue ensuite par Araignee.

Dans la version populaire orale, si Araignee a acquis son b?uf de facon legitime, sa punition ne peut venir que de son comportement posterieur a cette acquisition. Research Proposal Writing Service! Il ne veut partager son b?uf avec quiconque, pas meme avec une mouche. Projects! Et c’est cet egoisme foncier, symptomatique d’une ideologie individualiste contraire aux valeurs communautaires de partage et de solidarite pronees dans la societe agni-baoule comme en beaucoup de societes africaines, qui semble la cause du chatiment transcendant (Bosse tombe d’en haut) qu’il recoit, sous forme de la privation du festin tant convoite. Dissertation Appendix Layout! Et, bien sur, comme Araignee est le decepteur dans ce repertoire de contes, il se venge a son tour de celui qui l’a depouille de son b?uf et il fait subir a un autre les consequences de son mefait. 28 Une telle lecture est toujours possible dans la version de Dadie ou Ananze (Araignee) manifeste le meme comportement individualiste, toutefois elle est concurrencee par une autre interpretation qui relativise la premiere et la fait passer au second plan. Projects! Ananze a triche pour obtenir son b?uf, puisque, au lieu de l’abattre avec son sexe comme le voulait la prescription de Dieu, il l’a tranche a la hache, mystifiant l’enfant de Dieu delegue pour le surveiller. Doctoral Dissertation History! S’il est donc par la suite prive de sa recompense, c’est aussi a cause de la tricherie et de la tricherie a l’egard de Dieu, ce qui motive singulierement le caractere transcendant du chatiment dont le texte nous precise la encore qu’il « tomba du ciel » (p.60) et qu’il est bien interprete par le heros comme un envoi de Dieu. Social Studies Projects! Une telle lecture est encore favorisee par le chant qu’entonne Ananze apres s’etre vu remettre le b?uf : Dieu, dieu, mais on work peut le tromper. Il suffit d’avoir du cran. Social! […] (p.59). 29 La lecon du conte populaire, liee a une morale ethnique et peut-etre plus largement africaine, pronant des valeurs de solidarite communautaire et condamnant l’individualisme, s’elargit donc, dans la version litteraire en francais, a une morale plus universelle sur l’honnetete (« Bien mal acquis ne profite jamais ») et prend une coloration nettement metaphysique puisqu’il est plus precisement question de bonne foi vis a vis de la transcendance.

Le fait que, dans cette version, l’agent du chatiment soit justement la Mort (avec une majuscule) au lieu de simplement « Bosse » comme dans la variante d’origine orale, renforce evidemment cette lecture metaphysique du conte. High Quality Paper! Le texte de Dadie voit donc s’accentuer, pour un lectorat plus vaste, sa portee philosophique generale. 30 Le conte des deux coepouses offre la meme possibilite de glissement interpretatif, avec, semble-t-il, les memes objectifs. Social Studies! Dans la version d’origine orale, il n’est pas question d’une bonne et d’une mauvaise coepouse et rien n’est dit sur leurs qualites morales respectives. Work! Si l’une reussit sa quete implicite en perdant sa bosse et si l’autre echoue en se voyant ajouter a la sienne la bosse de la premiere, ce ne peut donc en aucun cas etre interprete comme une recompense de la bonte de la premiere et une sanction de la mechancete de la seconde. Social Studies! La seule chose qui differe entre les deux, c’est leur comportement lorsqu’elles participent a la danse des genies. Research Writing Service Learning! La premiere reprend tres scrupuleusement les paroles de leur chant, qui d’ailleurs consiste essentiellement a repeter en wolof le mot de « mardi » (talaata, terme emprunte a l’arabe), jour de leur reunion, comme l’indiquent les propos de la premiere coepouse lorsqu’elle revele son secret a la seconde : « Si tu te rends la nuit du mardi du cote des toilettes, tu trouveras les djinns en train de jouer dans une vaste cour. Find Social Projects! ». Dissertation Appendix! La seconde, en revanche, prolonge a sa fantaisie le chant en enumerant les autres jours de la semaine : mercredi, jeudi, vendredi (Allarba, Alxames, Aljuma). Find Projects! Et le contexte montre de facon tres explicite que c’est cette invention personnelle de la femme qui conduit les genies a lui ajouter a sa bosse celle de sa coepouse, abandonnee a la seance precedente : Les djinns affoles s’interrogerent : « Qui a l’audace d’allonger notre chanson sans notre autorisation ? » Les autres ponctuaient : « C’est cette etrangere, c’est cette etrangere ; nous nous devons donc de lui doubler sa bosse. Appendix Layout! » Ils prirent la bosse de la coepouse qu’ils collerent a la sienne en lui disant : « Deguerpis ! Tu n’as rien a ajouter a notre chanson sans notre autorisation ! » 31 On comprend que nous sommes en presence d’un conte initiatique indiquant que l’initie doit se conformer scrupuleusement aux indications de ses maitres initiateurs. Find Studies Projects! La premiere reussit son initiation parce qu’elle agit ainsi, tandis que la seconde echoue du fait qu’elle n’a pas une attitude suffisamment respectueuse ni docile. Dissertation Help! Pas de lecon ici autre qu’initiatique. 32 En faisant de ses deux coepouses une bonne et une mauvaise, Birago Diop modifie considerablement la signification du conte, d’autant que, dans la rencontre entre Koumba et la vieille femme sous le tamarinier (p.

37), le texte insiste par prolepse sur le fait que ce qui va arriver a Koumba est une recompense meritee de sa grande bonte : Koumba, reprit la vieille femme, je connais ton bon coeur et ton grand merite depuis que tu reconnais ta droite de ta gauche. Projects! Je veux te rendre un grand service car je t’en sais digne. Appendix Layout! Vendredi, a la pleine lune, sur la colline d’argile de N’Guew, les filles-genies danseront. Find Social! Tu iras sur la colline lorsque la terre sera froide. Paper! Quand le tam-tam battra son plein, quand le cercle sera bien anime, quand sans arret une danseuse remplacera une autre danseuse, tu t’approcheras et tu diras a la fille-genie qui sera a cote de toi : -Tiens, prends-moi l’enfant que j’ai sur le dos, c’est mon tour de danser. 33 Quant a Khary, la mechante coepouse, lorsqu’elle se rend a son tour a la danse des filles-genies, elle ne semble pas commettre d’erreur particuliere dans le deroulement du rite.

Par consequent, si elle se voit affublee de la deuxieme bosse, cela ne peut apparaitre que comme une punition transcendante de sa mechancete intrinseque, qui la conduit d’ailleurs finalement a la mort, de rage, episode qui ne se retrouve pas dans la version orale. Studies Projects! Le conte est donc passe d’une lecon essentiellement initiatique a une morale plus ou moins universelle qui veut que les bons soient recompenses et les mechants punis, ce qui gomme l’identite wolof et plus largement africaine du conte au profit de valeurs beaucoup plus familieres au lectorat occidental. 34 A propos de cet episode de la rencontre avec les genies, on edit situation notera aussi, chez Diop, le meme souci de bienseance et d’effacement du trivial au profit du poetique. Find Studies! Alors que dans la version populaire elle a lieu a cote des toilettes4, dans le conte de Diop, elle se deroule « a la pleine lune, sur la colline d’argile de N’Guew (…), lorsque la terre (est) froide ». 35 En outre, dans la version wolof authentique, la presence des deux coepouses est une donnee de depart du conte : « Il y avait une fois deux coepouses bossues », precision qui ne requiert aucun besoin de justification dans la societe agni-baoule ou la polygamie est une pratique normale et courante. 36 En revanche Birago Diop se sent oblige, dans son conte ecrit directement en francais, de presenter les choses un peu differemment.

Dans « Les mamelles », si Momar prend une seconde epouse, c’est parce qu’il est en quelque sorte contraint a le faire : sa premiere femme, Khary est absolument epouvantable et ne remplit pas son office d’epouse. College Essay Valuable! Il a somme toute une « excuse » pour prendre une seconde femme et, en creux, le lecteur est invite a comprendre que si Khary n’avait pas ete si mauvaise, jamais il n’aurait eu l’idee de prendre Koumba : Las de travailler tout le jour et de ne prendre que le soir un repas chaud, Momar s’etait decide (souligne par nous) a prendre une deuxieme femme et il avait epouse Koumba. 37 Ce souci, dans la version litteraire, d’excuser la polygamie, en lui trouvant une justification circonstancielle, temoigne encore de la conscience de l’auteur d’avoir a s’adresser – au moins partiellement – a un lectorat qui voit dans la polygamie une pratique de « sauvage » ou en tout cas une pratique culturellement inferieure. 38 Cette breve analyse de nos deux contes aura donc montre qu’en passant de la culture orale de leur terroir a une production ecrite en francais, dans le contexte d’une certaine epoque, ils ont subi une transformation profonde qui, derriere une apparente fidelite aux grandes lignes de l’histoire, est presque une trahison de leur personnalite originelle, tant du point de vue de la morphologie du recit que de la moralite des contes. Find Social! Affirmer ainsi qu’il s’agit d’une trahison ne signifie nullement de notre part prononcer une condamnation de l’entreprise des deux ecrivains. Work! Notre propos n’est pas ici de nous poser en censeur ni de prendre parti pour louer ou condamner. Social Studies Projects! La litterature n’a pas a s’accommoder de dogme et toute l’histoire de la creation litteraire est faite, dans l’intertextualite, de trahisons parfois geniales. Dissertation! Il s’agit seulement de constater que ces contes « litteraires », s’ils sont bien des ?uvres africaines – il n’y a aucune raison de leur denier cette qualite -, sont des produits d’epoque (les annees soixante) marques par le mouvement de la negritude et le souci de promotion exogene de la culture africaine dont les intellectuels du continent voulaient montrer l’appartenance au patrimoine culturel universel. Find Studies Projects! Pour ce faire, les auteurs les presentaient d’abord comme partageant les memes canons et les memes valeurs que celles qui avaient cours en Occident.

De telles productions, apres le traitement qu’elles ont subi, n’ont evidemment plus grand chose a voir avec les contes oraux qui en ont ete la source. CAMARA Laye (1978), Le maitre de la parole, Kouma Lafolo Kouma, Plon. DADIE Bernard (1955), Le pagne noir. KOUMBA Amadou, « Les coepouses bossues », in Research proposal writing service, Contes et mythes du Senegal, CILF, Fleuve et Flamme, 1991. NGUESSAN M.A., Araignee et bosse. NIANE Djibril Tamsir (1960) Soundjata ou l’epopee mandingue, Presence Africaine.

SALL Momar, Contes et mythes du Senegal, Fleuve et Flamme, EDICEF, 1991.

An Interpreter Speaking Up for Migrants. WATERLOO, Iowa — In 23 years as a certified Spanish interpreter for federal courts, Erik Camayd-Freixas has spoken up in studies projects criminal trials many times, but the words he uttered were rarely his own. Then he was summoned here by court officials to translate in the hearings for nearly 400 illegal immigrant workers arrested in volunteer a raid on May 12 at a meatpacking plant. Since then, Mr. Camayd-Freixas, a professor of Find social studies, Spanish at Florida International University, has taken the unusual step of breaking the code of confidentiality among legal interpreters about college, their work. In a 14-page essay he circulated among two dozen other interpreters who worked here, Professor Camayd-Freixas wrote that the immigrant defendants whose words he translated, most of them villagers from Guatemala, did not fully understand the criminal charges they were facing or the rights most of them had waived. In the essay and an interview, Professor Camayd-Freixas said he was taken aback by the rapid pace of the proceedings and the pressure prosecutors brought to bear on the defendants and their lawyers by pressing criminal charges instead of deporting the Find social projects workers immediately for immigration violations. He said defense lawyers had little time or privacy to meet with their court-assigned clients in photo the first hectic days after the raid. Most of the Guatemalans could not read or write, he said. Most did not understand that they were in criminal court. “The questions they asked showed they did not understand what was going on,” Professor Camayd-Freixas said in the interview. “The great majority were under the impression they were there because of being illegal in the country, not because of Find social, Social Security fraud.” During fast-paced hearings in May, 262 of the illegal immigrants pleaded guilty in one week and were sentenced to prison — most for proposal writing learning five months — for knowingly using false Social Security cards or legal residence documents to Find gain jobs at Essay about, the Agriprocessors kosher meat plant in nearby Postville.

It was the largest criminal enforcement operation ever carried out by immigration authorities at a workplace. The essay has provoked new questions about the Agriprocessors proceedings, which had been criticized by criminal defense and immigration lawyers as failing to uphold the immigrants’ right to due process. Representative Zoe Lofgren, Democrat of California and chairwoman of the House Judiciary immigration subcommittee, said she would hold a hearing on Find projects the prosecutions and call Professor Camayd-Freixas as a witness. “The essay raises questions about whether the charges brought were supported by the facts,” Ms. Lofgren said. Bob Teig, a spokesman for Matt M. Dummermuth, the edit difficult United States attorney for the Northern District of Iowa, said the immigrants’ constitutional rights were not compromised. Projects? “All defendants were provided with experienced criminal attorneys and Mba essay edit, interpreters before they made any decisions in their criminal cases,” Mr. Teig said. “Once they made their choices, two independent judicial officers determined the studies projects defendants were making their choices freely and voluntarily, were satisfied with their attorney, and were, in than fact, guilty.” Mr. Social? Teig said the judges in the cases were satisfied with the guilty pleas. “The judges had the right and Dissertation appendix, duty to reject any guilty plea where a defendant was not guilty,” Mr. Teig said. “No plea was rejected.” The essay by Professor Camayd-Freixas, who is the director of social studies projects, a program to train language interpreters at the university, has also caused a stir among legal interpreters. In telephone calls and debates through e-mail, they have discussed whether it was appropriate for a translator to speak publicly about Doctoral dissertation help, conversations with criminal defendants who were covered by legal confidentiality. “It is Find social studies, quite unusual that a legal interpreter would go to college essay valuable than this length of writing up an essay and social studies projects, taking a strong stance,” said Nataly Kelly, an analyst with Common Sense Advisory, a marketing research company focused on language services. Ms.

Kelly is dissertation, a certified legal interpreter who is the author of a manual about interpreting. The Agriprocessors hearings were held in Find social studies projects temporary courtrooms in A good essay valuable money mobile trailers and a ballroom at the National Cattle Congress, a fairgrounds here in Waterloo. Professor Camayd-Freixas worked with one defense lawyer, Sara L. Social Studies? Smith, translating her discussions with nine clients she represented. He also worked in courtrooms during plea and sentencing hearings. Doctoral History? Ms. Smith praised Professor Camayd-Freixas’s essay, saying it captured the immigrants’ distress during “the surreal two weeks” of the proceedings. She said he had not revealed information that was detrimental to her cases. But she cautioned that interpreters should not commonly speak publicly about studies, conversations between lawyers and clients. “It is not a practice that I would generally advocate as I could envision circumstances under which such revelations could be damaging to a client’s case,” Ms.

Smith said. An error has occurred. Research Writing? Please try again later. You are already subscribed to this email. Professor Camayd-Freixas said he had considered withdrawing from the assignment, but decided instead that he could play a valuable role by witnessing the proceedings and Find studies, making them known. He suggested many of the college essay valuable than immigrants could not have knowingly committed the crimes in their pleas. “Most of the social clients we interviewed did not even know what a Social Security card was or what purpose it served,” he wrote. He said many immigrants could not distinguish between a Social Security card and a residence visa, known as a green card. They said they had purchased fake documents from smugglers in Postville, or obtained them directly from supervisors at the Agriprocessors plant. Research Writing? Most did not know that the original cards could belong to Americans and legal immigrants, Mr. Camayd-Freixas said. Find Studies? Ms.

Smith went repeatedly over the charges and the options available to her clients, Professor Camayd-Freixas said. He cited the reaction of one Guatemalan, Isaias Perez Martinez: “No matter how many times his attorney explained it, he kept saying, ‘I’m illegal, I have no rights. I’m nobody in this country. Just do whatever you want with me.’ ” Professor Camayd-Freixas said Mr. Perez Martinez wept during much of his meeting with Ms. Smith.

Ms. Research Proposal Writing Service? Smith, like more than a dozen other court-appointed defense lawyers, concluded that none of the immigrants’ legal options were good. Studies Projects? Prosecutors had evidence showing they had presented fraudulent documents when they were hired at than money, Agriprocessors. In plea agreements offered by Find studies projects Mr. Dummermuth, the immigrants could plead guilty to dissertation help history a document fraud charge and serve five months in prison. Otherwise, prosecutors would try them on more serious identity theft charges carrying a mandatory sentence of two years. In any scenario, even if they were acquitted, the Find immigrants would eventually be deported.

Worried about layout, families they had been supporting with their wages, the immigrants readily chose to plead guilty because they did understand that was the fastest way to return home, Professor Camayd-Freixas said. “They were hoping and they were begging everybody to deport them,” he said. Ms. Social Studies? Smith said she was convinced after examining the prosecutors’ evidence that it was not in her clients’ interests to go to trial. “I think they understood what their options were,” she said. “I tried to Dissertation appendix layout make it very clear.” Legal interpreters familiar with the profession said that Professor Camayd-Freixas’ essay, while a notable departure from the norm, did not violate professional standards. Isabel Framer, a certified legal interpreter from Ohio who is chairwoman of the National Association of Find social studies, Judiciary Interpreters and Translators, said Professor Camayd-Freixas did not go public while the Research proposal writing service cases were still in court or reveal information that could not be discerned from the record.

Ms. Find? Framer said she was speaking for herself because her organization had not taken an official position on the essay. “Interpreters, just like judges and attorneys, have an obligation to maintain the confidentiality of the process,” she said. Research? “But they don’t check their ethical standards at the door.” A version of Find social studies projects, this article appears in print on learning , on Page A1 of the New York edition with the headline: An Interpreter Speaking Up For Migrants. Order Reprints | Today's Paper | Subscribe. We#8217;re interested in social studies projects your feedback on Mba essay edit situation this page.

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Focus and Precision: How to Write Essays that Answer the Find studies Question. Stephanie Allen read Classics and English at St Hugh’s College, Oxford, and is currently researching a PhD in essay than money, Early Modern Academic Drama at the University of studies projects Fribourg. We’ve all been there. You’ve handed in an essay and you think it’s pretty great: it shows off all your best ideas, and contains points you’re sure no one else will have thought of. You’re not totally convinced that what you’ve written is relevant to the title you were given – but it’s inventive, original and Mba essay edit difficult situation, good. In fact, it might be better than anything that would have responded to the question. But your essay isn’t met with the lavish praise you expected. When it’s tossed back onto your desk, there are huge chunks scored through with red pen, crawling with annotations like little red fire ants: ‘IRRELEVANT’; ‘A bit of Find social projects a tangent!’; ‘. ’; and, right next to your best, most impressive killer point: ‘Right… so?’.

The grade your teacher has scrawled at the end is nowhere near what your essay deserves. Photo? In fact, it’s pretty average. And the comment at the bottom reads something like, ‘Some good ideas, but you didn’t answer the question!’. If asked a question about Keats, you should write about social studies projects Keats. If this has ever happened to you (and it has happened to Mba essay edit situation, me, a lot), you’ll know how deeply frustrating it is Find social studies projects – and how unfair it can seem.

This might just be me, but the exhausting process of researching, having ideas, planning, writing and help history, re-reading makes me steadily more attached to the ideas I have, and the things I’ve managed to put on the page. Each time I scroll back through what I’ve written, or planned, so far, I become steadily more convinced of its brilliance. What started off as a scribbled note in the margin, something extra to think about or to pop in if it could be made to fit the argument, sometimes comes to be backbone of projects a whole essay – so, when a tutor tells me my inspired paragraph about A good college essay valuable than Ted Hughes’s interpretation of mythology isn’t relevant to my essay on Keats, I fail to see why. Or even if I can see why, the social studies thought of taking it out is difficult wrenching. Social Studies? Who cares if it’s a bit off-topic? It should make my essay stand out, if anything! And an examiner would probably be happy not to Research proposal, read yet another answer that makes exactly the same points. If you recognise yourself in the above, there are two crucial things to realise. The first is that something has to change: because doing well in high school exam or coursework essays is almost totally dependent on being able to Find studies projects, pin down and organise lots of edit situation ideas so that an examiner can see that they convincingly answer a question. And it’s a real shame to Find, work hard on something, have good ideas, and not get the marks you deserve.

Writing a top essay is a very particular and actually quite simple challenge. It’s not actually that important how original you are, how compelling your writing is, how many ideas you get down, or how beautifully you can express yourself (though of course, all these things do have their rightful place). High Paper? What you’re doing, essentially, is using a limited amount of time and knowledge to really answer a question. It sounds obvious, but a good essay should have the title or question as its focus the whole way through . It should answer it ten times over – in every single paragraph, with every fact or figure. Treat your reader (whether it’s your class teacher or an external examiner) like a child who can’t do any interpretive work of their own; imagine yourself leading them through your essay by the hand, pointing out that you’ve answered the question here , and here , and here. Now, this is all very well, I imagine you objecting, and much easier said than done. But never fear! Structuring an projects, essay that knocks a question on the head is something you can learn to do in a couple of Dissertation appendix easy steps. In the social next few hundred words, I’m going to share with you what I’ve learned through endless, mindless crossings-out, rewordings, rewritings and rethinkings. I’ve lost count of the number of times I’ve been told to ‘write the Mba essay difficult situation question at the top of Find projects every new page’- but for some reason, that trick simply doesn’t work for me.

If it doesn’t work for you either, use this three-part process to allow the question to structure your essay: 1) Work out exactly what you’re being asked. It sounds really obvious, but lots of students have trouble answering questions because they don’t take time to figure out exactly what they’re expected to writing service, do – instead, they skim-read and then write the essay they want to write. Sussing out a question is Find social studies projects a two-part process, and the first part is difficult easy. It means looking at Find social, the directions the question provides as to what sort of essay you’re going to write. I call these ‘command phrases’ and Research writing learning, will go into more detail about what they mean below. The second part involves identifying key words and phrases. Use forceful, persuasive language to show how the points you’ve made do answer the projects question. My main focus so far has been on tangential or irrelevant material – but many students lose marks even though they make great points, because they don’t quite impress how relevant those points are. Again, I’ll talk about A good valuable than money how you can do this below.

3) Be brutally honest with yourself about projects whether a point is Dissertation appendix layout relevant before you write it. It doesn’t matter how impressive, original or interesting it is. Studies? It doesn’t matter if you’re panicking, and edit difficult, you can’t think of any points that do answer the Find social studies projects question. Proposal Service? If a point isn’t relevant, don’t bother with it. It’s a waste of time, and might actually work against you- if you put tangential material in Find social studies, an essay, your reader will struggle to follow the thread of your argument, and Essay volunteer work experience, lose focus on your really good points. ‘Macbeth and Banquo meeting the witches on the heath’ by Theodore Chasseriau. Let’s imagine you’re writing an English essay about the role and Find studies, importance of the three witches in Macbeth . You’re thinking about the different ways in work, which Shakespeare imagines and presents the witches, how they influence the action of the tragedy, and perhaps the extent to which we’re supposed to believe in them (stay with me – you don’t have to know a single thing about social studies Shakespeare or Macbeth to understand this bit!). Help? Now, you’ll probably have a few good ideas on this topic – and whatever essay you write, you’ll most likely use much of the projects same material. However, the detail of the phrasing of the question will significantly affect the way you write your essay. You would draw on similar material to address the following questions: Discuss Shakespeare’s representation of the three witches in Macbeth . How does Shakespeare figure the Research proposal writing service supernatural in projects, Macbeth ? To what extent are the three witches responsible for Macbeth’s tragic downfall?

Evaluate the Doctoral importance of the three witches in bringing about Macbeth’s ruin. Are we supposed to Find, believe in the three witches in quality paper, Macbeth ? “Within Macbeth ’s representation of the witches, there is profound ambiguity about the studies actual significance and proposal service learning, power of their malevolent intervention” (Stephen Greenblatt). Find Projects? Discuss. I’ve organised the examples into three groups, exemplifying the different types of Essay about work experience questions you might have to social, answer in an exam. The first group are pretty open-ended: ‘discuss’- and ‘how’-questions leave you room to set the scope of the Mba essay difficult essay. You can decide what the focus should be. Social Projects? Beware, though – this doesn’t mean you don’t need a sturdy structure, or a clear argument, both of which should always be present in an essay. The second group are asking you to difficult situation, evaluate, constructing an argument that decides whether, and how far something is true. Good examples of hypotheses (which your essay would set out to prove) for these questions are:

The witches are the most important cause of tragic action in Macbeth. The witches are partially, but not entirely responsible for Macbeth’s downfall, alongside Macbeth’s unbridled ambition, and Find social studies, that of appendix his wife. We are not supposed to believe the witches: they are a product of Find Macbeth’s psyche, and his downfall is his own doing. A Good Valuable Than? The witches’ role in Find social, Macbeth’s downfall is deliberately unclear. Their claim to appendix, reality is shaky – finally, their ambiguity is part of an uncertain tragic universe and the great illusion of the theatre. (N.B. It’s fine to conclude that a question can’t be answered in Find social, black and white, certain terms – as long as you have a firm structure, and keep referring back to Dissertation appendix layout, it throughout the essay). The final question asks you to respond to a quotation. Students tend to find these sorts of questions the most difficult to answer, but once you’ve got the Find social studies projects hang of dissertation history them I think the title does most of the studies work for you – often implicitly providing you with a structure for your essay. The first step is breaking down the quotation into its constituent parts- the different things it says. I use brackets: ( Within Macbeth ’s representation of the witches, ) ( there is profound ambiguity ) about the ( actual significance ) ( and difficult, power ) of ( their malevolent intervention ) Examiners have a nasty habit of Find social studies projects picking the most bewildering and terrifying-sounding quotations: but once you break them down, they’re often asking for Research service, something very simple. This quotation, for Find projects, example, is asking exactly the same thing as the other questions.

The trick here is making sure you respond to all the different parts. You want to make sure you discuss the Mba essay edit difficult situation following: Do you agree that the Find studies projects status of the witches’ ‘malevolent intervention’ is Mba essay situation ambiguous? What is its significance? How powerful is it? James I, the King of Find social studies England and Dissertation appendix, Scotland at the time Macbeth was written, famously wrote ‘Daemonologie’, which encourages the social studies practice of witch-hunting. Having worked out exactly what the question is asking, write out A good essay valuable than money a plan (which should be very detailed in Find social projects, a coursework essay, but doesn’t have to be more than a few lines long in an exam context) of the about volunteer experience material you’ll use in each paragraph. Make sure your plan contains a sentence at the end of each point about how that point will answer the question.

A point from my plan for one of the social studies topics above might look something like this: To what extent are we supposed to believe in the three witches in Macbeth ? Hypothesis: The witches’ role in Macbeth’s downfall is Dissertation appendix deliberately unclear. Their claim to reality is uncertain – finally, they’re part of an uncertain tragic universe and studies projects, the great illusion of the college essay valuable than money theatre. At the time Shakespeare wrote Macbeth , there were many examples of people being burned or drowned as witches There were also people who claimed to social studies projects, be able to exorcise evil demons from people who were ‘possessed’. Catholic Christianity leaves much room for the supernatural to exist This suggests that Shakespeare’s contemporary audience might, more readily than a modern one, have believed that witches were a real phenomenon and did exist. My final sentence (highlighted in Doctoral help history, red) shows how the material discussed in the paragraph answers the question.

Writing this out at the planning stage, in addition to clarifying your ideas, is a great test of whether a point is relevant: if you struggle to social studies projects, write the sentence, and make the connection to the question and larger argument, you might have gone off-topic. Step Three: Paragraph beginnings and Essay experience, endings. This 16th century English illustration shows a witch feeding her familiars. The final step to making sure you pick up all the possible marks for ‘answering the question’ in an essay is ensuring that you make it explicit how your material does so. This bit relies upon Find projects, getting the beginnings and endings of paragraphs just right. Proposal Writing Service? To reiterate what I said above, treat your reader like a child: tell them what you’re going to say; tell them how it answers the question; say it, and then tell them how you’ve answered the question. This need not feel clumsy, awkward or repetitive. The first sentence of each new paragraph or point should, without giving too much of your conclusion away, establish what you’re going to discuss, and how it answers the social question. The opening sentence from the paragraph I planned above might go something like this: Early modern political and religious contexts suggest that Shakespeare’s contemporary audience might more readily have believed in witches than his modern readers. The sentence establishes that I’m going to discuss Jacobean religion and witch-burnings, and also what I’m going to volunteer work, use those contexts to studies, show.

I’d then slot in all my facts and proposal writing service learning, examples in the middle of the paragraph. The final sentence (or few sentences) should be strong and decisive, making a clear connection to the question you’ve been asked: Contemporary suspicion that witches did exist, testified to by witch-hunts and exorcisms, is Find social studies projects crucial to our understanding of the witches in Macbeth. To the early modern consciousness, witches were a distinctly real and dangerous possibility – and the witches in the play would have seemed all-the-more potent and terrifying as a result. The best way to get really good at making sure you always ‘answer the proposal writing service learning question’ is to write essay plans rather than whole pieces. Set aside a few hours, choose a couple of essay questions from past papers, and for each: Write a hypothesis Write a rough plan of what each paragraph will contain Write out the first and projects, last sentence of edit difficult each paragraph. You can get your teacher, or a friend, to social studies, look through your plans and give you feedback.

If you follow this advice, fingers crossed, next time you hand in an essay, it’ll be free from red-inked comments about irrelevance, and instead showered with praise for the precision with which you handled the volunteer work topic, and how intently you focused on answering the question. Find Projects? It can seem depressing when your perfect question is Essay about volunteer work experience just a minor tangent from the Find social projects question you were actually asked, but trust me – high praise and good marks are all found in answering the help history question in front of you, not the one you would have liked to see. Teachers do choose the questions they set you with some care, after all; chances are the Find social studies question you were set is the more illuminating and rewarding one as well. 40 Responses to Dissertation appendix layout, “Focus and Precision: How to Write Essays that Answer the Question” August 21, 2014 at 8:22 am, Kristen Webster said: I have been reading your articles on better essay writing and I am wondering whether you can provide an example of projects a well written essay please?

August 21, 2014 at Research proposal service, 11:59 am, ORA Admin said: We haven’t produced any sample essays ourselves. However, there is a huge amount available online – the Student Room’s sample essays might be a good place to start. We hope this helps. January 20, 2015 at Find studies projects, 1:54 am, kot said: Thank you this was very helpful!

March 18, 2015 at 7:56 am, Kos cahe said: How do you answer a “to what extend” essay question? March 18, 2015 at 12:34 pm, ORA Admin said: A ‘to what extent’ essay question is effectively a ‘yes or no’ essay question that’s phrased in a more helpful way. For example: To what extent did his desire for a son influence Henry VIII’s decision to Mba essay edit difficult, break from the Catholic Church? Did his desire for social, a son influence Henry VIII’s decision to break from the Catholic Church?

You can see that both questions will get a very similar answer, only “to what extent” gives you a hint of what sort of answer is High quality paper jam expected – that it played some role, but that there are other causes that need to projects, be considered. In a ‘to what extent’ essay, you should consider a variety of reasons, but in each paragraph return to the reason given in the question. In my Henry VIII example, you might write one paragraph on his desire to divorce Catherine of Aragon and proposal service, marry Anne Boleyn, but connect this back to his desire for a son, as he believed Anne Boleyn stood a better chance of giving him a son than Catherine of Aragon. In the conclusion, you could then assess whether the reason given in the question is in studies projects, fact the most important, or if there was a more significant reason that you have identified in the essay. We hope this helps,

November 22, 2015 at 6:14 pm, Sarah said: How do I write an essay with keywords or key points already given in the question? For eg. If the question says to write an essay on about volunteer work, some topic and below are some key points or key words. November 23, 2015 at 10:25 am, ORA Admin said: Thank you for your comment. It is difficult to Find social, advise you on Doctoral help, the specific essay in question, but we do have a large collection of essay-writing and study skills articles on the ORA website that may be of use to social studies projects, you. Hopefully you can find something that can help you in the following articles: March 29, 2016 at 9:47 am, Fay said:

How do you answer a “why” essay question? May 29, 2016 at 8:16 pm, Aaliyah said: Hi, how do you answer a “what does so and so contribute to college essay than, physics?” Is this simply a descriptive essay? June 27, 2016 at 3:04 am, Dutta the One said: Thank you for this amazing article. I feel so much more confident now! Just coincidentally, I happen to have an essay on Macbeth this Friday! Wish me luck! June 27, 2016 at 6:38 am, ritchie said:

Great article, thanks! When answering a ‘DO YOU AGREE’ question, is it better to give a straight ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ answer, instead of ‘May be’, ‘Yes and no’… August 22, 2016 at 5:23 pm, holly said: how would you answer ‘ evaluate the main reasons’ I’m confused on how to social studies, structure it. August 27, 2016 at 1:35 am, Deyshan said: I was wondering your opinion on how to answer a How essay question. For example: How does To Kill a Mockingbird and 12 Angry Men illustrate the dangers of help personal prejudice? September 30, 2016 at Find studies projects, 6:20 pm, www.larchesyria.com said: Asking questions are truly pleasant thing if you are not understanding. anything completely, but this article offers pleasant. November 13, 2016 at 11:02 am, janaki ballav said: this article was very helpful ..i want to develope my writing skill…will be obliged if you could give tips and ways on High paper jam, practical appreciation of poem. November 13, 2016 at 11:06 am, janaki ballav said:

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How to Find, write CV profiles, personal statements, career aims and layout objectives. A Career Aim, Personal Statement or Profile can be a useful way of flagging an Find social studies interest and skills for a particular career on your CV, particularly if you have no relevant degree or work experience to quality photo, give your CV focus. When profile is used used on this page it can be assumed that personal statement could have been used in its place. A profile is only part of a CV so this section should be read in conjunction with our CV examples . CAREER OBJECTIVE? CAREER AIM ? CAREER ASPIRATION? CAREER GOAL ? PERSONAL PROFILE ? PERSONAL STATEMENT ? KEY ATTRIBUTES ? ABOUT ME. My own preferred title is Find social studies projects simply: Focuses on Doctoral dissertation help history, the type of work you wish to get into . Focuses on your skills achievements . Find Social Projects! Tells an employer who you are and quality paper what you can do for them.

short and to the point. contains a sentence or two about the type of Find social studies, work you are aiming for . a few lines about the attributes which make you suitable for the role. You can even call it nothing at all. If it's in the usual place at the start of the CV you can just have an un-named paragraph. It's not necessary to have a profile but if you do, it must be lively and succinct! The information can be included as part of your covering letter instead.

It can be a useful summary particularly if you are sending your CV to recruitment agencies where a letter may become detached. They tend to be most used and effective for fields where there is a lot of competition for college than, places and your CV really needs to stand out from the crowd: PR , advertising , management consultancy , the media , events management and similar fields. Are personal statements a waste of space? Why employers think the personal statement is more important than qualifications. What is the difference between a personal statement and a covering letter? A profile is a short introduction to your CV, whereas a covering letter is Find social projects a one page letter going into much more detail about why you are suitable for a specific job and A good essay valuable than organisation. Projects! There will inevitably be some overlap in content, so try to write any similar content using different words (use a thesaurus) and from a slightly different perspective. Because your profile will be on all your CVs, you normally just mention the proposal learning particular job sector you are applying for jobs in (e.g. Find! publishing). Edit! A covering letter is normally used to apply for a specific advertised vacancy and so will focus on a particular job (e.g. Find Projects! editorial assistant in a particular publishing company). Sometimes you may send out a speculative covering letter with your CV and here the focus will be broad, just like in High quality photo jam the profile, as you don't know which jobs might be available. State the JOB SECTOR you’re applying for e.g. publishing Summarise your strengths . When you're available to start.

State the JOB you’re applying for social studies projects, e.g. A Good Valuable! editorial assistant. Where you found out about it (advert in The Guardian newspaper etc. - organisations like to Find social studies projects, know which of their advertising sources are being successful) When you're available to about volunteer experience, start work (and end if it's a placement) Why you're interested in that type of work Why the studies company attracts you (if it's a small company say you prefer to work for a small friendly organisation!) Summarise your strengths and how they might be an advantage to the organisation. Relate your skills to the job. Edit Difficult! Mention any dates that you won't be available for interview Thank the employer and say you look forward to hearing from them soon. What if I have no idea of what job I wish to studies, go in to? In this case it might be better not to include a profile.

An unfocused profile is worse than none at proposal service, all. However, a carefully worded summary of your key strengths and attributes will enhance your CV. How long should it be and where do you put it? No longer than six lines - some sites suggest a maximum of 4 lines. It must be short and positive with your key strengths, skills, experience and interests. It is mean to be an appetiser rather than to give the employer indigestion! The time to elaborate and Find projects give evidence for these is later in the CV. Place it at the start of the CV . Recently I've seen some CVs with the statement half way through the CV or at the end. This seems to defeat the object, which is to give a concise introduction to your aims and Dissertation appendix layout skills . Social! Start with a short description : A highly motivated graduate who has just completed a Law degree at the University of Kent When badly written, they are vague with sweeping generic statements : I have good teamworking and communication skills sends selectors to sleep as it appears so regularly.

Use a Thesaurus or see our Skills Map for better words to use! Learn to use action words to brighten up the content. Analyse your core strengths . Research Proposal Service! A profile is a sales tool: a concise summary of why they should take you, so you should include brief details of Find social studies projects, your major selling points, especially those that are important in the job you are applying to. CVs sent to recruitment agencies can benefit from a statement as a covering letter may become detached. Some agencies send you for unsuitable jobs and appendix layout a career aim can help to prevent this. Social! However the career aim here needs to be fairly broad or you may get submitted for few vacancies. Buzzwords make you sound like just another faceless candidate, a plastic applicant with no real personality who just cuts and Doctoral dissertation pastes from other people's CVs. According to a survey by LinkedIn here are the top 10 overused buzzwords used in LinkedIn Profiles in the USA in 2010. Extensive experience Innovative Motivated Results-oriented Dynamic. 6. Proven track record. 9. Problem solver.

In other countries extensive experience was most used in the USA, Canada, Australia, dynamic was most common in Brazil, India, Spain, motivated was the most common one in Find social studies the UK whereas in France, Germany, Italy, Netherlands, innovative ruled the roost. About Volunteer Work! For more about this see the LinkedIn Article Stop Using These 16 Terms to Describe Yourself. The 2013 list of overused buzzwords in order were: Responsible, Strategic, Effective, Creative, Innovative, Expert, Positive, Passionate, Driven, Dynamic. 14, Wychurch Road, Canterbury, Kent. CT2 7SJ. Tel. 01227 - 764521 email ab999@kent.ac.uk. An adaptable and responsible graduate seeking an entry-level position in public relations which will utilise the organisational and communication skills developed through my involvement with Kent Rag and promotional work during vacations.

During my degree I successfully combined my studies with work and other commitments showing myself to be self-motivated, organised and capable of working under pressure. Find Social Studies Projects! I have a clear, logical mind with a practical approach to problem solving and a drive to see things through to completion. I enjoy working on my own initiative or in a team. Learning! In short, I am reliable, trustworthy, hardworking and eager to learn and have a genuine interest in PR. The Profile normally starts straight after the personal details on the CV (these will be missed out in studies all the High quality photo paper jam other examples to save space. See our CV examples to see how the profile fits in with the rest of the CV.)

Clear career aim and evidence of some involvement in Find PR related activities whilst at university. This is appendix informative, factual and focused on the job in question and gives information that encourages the Find social projects reader to delve further into the CV. Successfully combined my studies with work and other commitments . Dissertation! Public Relations is largely about juggling lots of different tasks successfully , so this is an Find social projects important piece of evidence that she will cope with the demands of the Research proposal learning job. Nice snappy ending to the profile. I am an energetic and enthusiastic person who enjoys a challenge and achieving personal goals. My present career aim is to work within IT because I enjoy working with computers, I enjoy the environment and I find the work interesting and satisfying. The opportunity to learn new skills and work with new technologies is particularly attractive to Find social, me. This statement is very bland : too vague and makes broad general statements. This is a good example of dissertation help history, where it would be better to use no statement at all as it adds nothing to the CV. If you are not sure leave out the profile and Find use your covering letter to sell your skills instead. I am a dynamic individual with excellent teamworking and comunication skills.

I would like job in business. It should be Personal Statement NOT Personnel ! C oMunication is spelt wrongly here - should be coMMunication. Avoid hackneyed phrases such as I have good communication skills and work well in a team They sound vague and vacuous, send selectors to A good essay valuable than money, sleep. Statements such as I am a dynamic individual can sound arrogant unless well written, and more importantly backed up with evidence later in studies the CV, otherwise they can sound just like hot air! Although see our Confident Covering Letter to see how this strategy can be made to work effectively. I am looking for management training which offers me the opportunity to develop new skills while strengthening those I already possess. My degree in service learning History has enabled me to social studies, develop good organisational skills, an analytical/logical approach to tasks and the ability to work under pressure. I am able to work well both on dissertation help, my own initiative and Find social studies as part of than money, a team. My main strengths are adaptability, dependability and Find studies the determination to get a job done as proven by my varied work experiences in retail, catering, hospitality work, teaching and patient care. I try to help history, learn something new from studies projects every experience because I believe there is photo paper always room for self-improvement both personally and professionally.

Fairly broad career objective: she's trying to keep her options open here. Sells the skills she has gained in her degree. Summarises her main strengths and relates these to her work experience. Nice last line about self improvement. Employers particularly like graduates who are up for social projects, new challenges . I have a visual impairment (full details are available on dissertation help, request), but this has not in any way prevented me from social studies projects successfully completing a demanding degree course and about volunteer work experience further education qualifications. Find Projects! Far from being a disadvantage, this has increased my awareness of the needs of learning, others and has increased my determination to succeed and to studies, persevere when obstacles are placed in my path. This focuses on the applicant's disability , but rather than deterring the selector, it sells the skills she has gained from overcoming her disability ; awareness of the needs of others, determination and than perseverance . It is short, to the point and effective. Interesting title: About Me . This is a more informal title that might work well in the creative and media fields.

A graduate with strong communication and organisational skills gained in nursing, now seeking to Find studies projects, move into a career as an analytical chemist. Dissertation Help History! Whilst my degree is in forensic science a large majority of the course consisted of chemistry, as highlighted by the list of social studies, modules completed on my course shown below. I feel I have learned more than just the theory behind Forensics but also many fundamental skills for my career and life. As I am a mature student I have other qualities to bring to the work place such as good team work, organisational skills, efficiency and I am very meticulous, I show pride in all the work I do, I work well under pressure and I love a challenge. Mba Essay Difficult Situation! I posses excellent verbal and social projects written communication skills and am able to relate to a wide range of people. All these skills have been enhanced during all the work experiences I have gained over the years. Starts with her objective . Also sells her degree , even though it's in a slightly different field to that she is applying for, by listing relevant modules (not shown here of edit difficult, course: see the science CV ). Sells the attributes she brings to the workplace as a mature graduate: pride in work, gets on well with a range of Find social, people.

Also says she has some of the k ey skills required by forensic scientists : meticulous, efficient, organised. To enter a graduate training programme in multimedia, preferably in the new-media sector where my creative initiative, ideas and a genuine enthusiasm would allow me to progress. I have a good working knowledge of quality photo paper, many industry leading software applications such as Adobe Dreamweaver, Photoshop and Find social projects Autodesk Maya. I work to the highest standards and have an eye for detail with skills in design and organisation. Completing my course projects has taught me to provide originality and quality whilst successfully meeting deadlines. A clear, well written objective here can help to stand out situation, from the crowd in the competitive area of the media or multimedia . Gives brief evidence of technical skills . More details would be given later in the CV. A versatile IT graduate, possessing strong motivational drive to succeed in the industry.

Highly developed skills in problem identification and implementation of effective solutions. Find Social Projects! Comfortable with analysing and understanding data, working under time pressure and presenting myself in a professional manner. Excellent inter-personal communication and social skills built through extensive training with the Samaritans. A friendly, mature and flexible individual with a proven entrepreneurial approach towards objectives and tasks. Here there is no heading to the profile. It's obvious that it is a profile by the content, and about volunteer work with CVs, the simpler it is, the better! A very confident profile. Find Social Projects! Written without the use of appendix layout, personal pronouns (I have . ) to save space. Second paragraph is rather dense and might be better broken up by the use of bullets or smaller paragraphs to Find studies projects, make easier to Mba essay difficult, read. A Business Administration graduate from the University of Kent.

He has skills and knowledge essential for Find, managing key areas of an essay than organisation and the problem solving skills needed in finance. He is looking for a graduate trainee post in marketing where he can use his strong influencing skills. Through his studies, work and voluntary roles he has acquired the ability to meet deadlines while maintaining a high standard of work. He possesses a good telephone manner and is able to relate to a wide range of people. This is Find projects written in the 3rd person (he rather than I) as if written by a referee. This seems to be a modern trend recommended by some recruitment agencies, but I'm not keen as it seems rather false and impersonal. Self motivated graduate with well developed project management and IT skills combined with a flexible attitude to work. A critical thinker with strong analytical skills Strong team-player skills developed through work in retail, in group laboratory experiments associated with the degree, and in particular group presentation work, in which good marks were achieved. Good organisational skills developed in a variety of deadline orientated situations. Get on Essay volunteer work experience, well with people at all levels, easily making good working relationships.

Have good presentation skills combining sound analytical research and clear verbal explanation. Seek out Find social projects, new responsibilities irrespective of reward and recognition. Strive for quality in layout everything I do. Uses key attributes instead of profile here. A bulleted list here . Looks well organised and studies easy to see the key points, but a short paragraph of prose is warmer and appendix layout more friendly. Action words are well used here. Misses out the Find social projects personal pronoun and Research proposal writing verb here (I am . ). This saves space and gives a cleaner look. Project management skills are increasingly in demand so sell course projects and especially group projects. What can I do with my degree. These pages are copyright of the University of Kent Careers and Employability Service.

The information and advice given in these pages is primarily for the benefit of University of Kent students and social studies projects graduates. You are most welcome to Research proposal learning, link to social, these pages but should not use content in other ways without our permission. Page maintained by Bruce Woodcock Please email me if you wish to make any suggestions which would improve our services.