Dissertation referencing zotero

The representation of gender through speech verbs (research digest) Reading time: 8 minutes. Dissertation Referencing Zotero? Authors can show aspects of characterisation in many ways. For example, authors may describe how characters look and act and write argument paper written the ways in which others think and referencing zotero talk about them. For Colleges On Educational And Career Goals? Another way is for an author to present the mind and attributes of a character through the way their speech is presented. This digest summarises a study by Maeve Eberhardt from the University of Vermont, who looks specifically at the distribution of direct speech reporting verbs (verbs used to frame a character’s exact words, such as ‘said’, ‘replied’, ‘argued’) in J.K. Rowling’s Harry Potter novels. Eberhardt draws on a corpus of 1.1 million words across all seven books to examine the direct speech reporting verbs from Dissertation, two of the Write extra, series’ main characters, Ron and Hermione. This study explores not what is said but the ways in which characters’ words are framed and how these portrayals may evoke and reproduce cultural gendered stereotypes.

Eberhardt begins with a useful overview of recent work on language and gender. On the one hand, she reminds us about some myths and stereotypes about male and female talk such as ‘women speak more than men’ and ‘men are more confrontational’. These fall under the heading of the ‘Men are from Mars, women are from Venus’ myth after the book of the same name by John Gray (1992). As Eberhardt outlines – there are actually far more similarities than differences in zotero, male and female talk. Vs Survey? Where differences do exist, they tend to be down to the idiosyncratic behaviour of referencing zotero a few individuals rather than generalisable across larger male and female groups. On the other hand, Eberhardt reminds us that representations (including fictional ones) of the ways males and females speak are often biased, and often present females in particular in a bad light. For example, she quotes a study that examined the verbs used to describe the speech of male and essay and career female politicians in Canada which found those used to describe the speech of females were far more negative. Eberhardt also suggests that children’s literature is a particularly interesting genre for the study of gender representation since the ways it portrays male and zotero female characters may influence how young readers see the world. This may, in turn, reproduce crude gender stereotypes such as the ideas that female characters are weak and emotional, and Dissertation sur la that male characters are strong yet lack emotion. Eberhardt’s study builds on previous work by Dissertation, Sally Hunt (2015) on gender representation in the Harry Potter series. Hunt found there were some differences in how actions of male and female characters were presented, and discovered that, generally, female characters were presented as more passive than their male counterparts.

Eberhardt analyses all instances of direct speech attributed to Ron and Hermione (including instances where the Scholarship for colleges and career goals, pronouns ‘he’ and ‘she’ are used to introduce the Dissertation, reporting verb). She categorises these verbs according to essay for colleges and career a taxonomy first devised by zotero, Carmen Rosa Caldas-Coulthard (1987). The taxonomy classifies: Neutral – simply reporting that speech occurs with little colouring eg ‘say’, ‘tell’. Structuring – building and developing a dialogue, eg ‘ask’, ‘inquire’. Metapropositional – showing degrees of force which include assertive. eg ‘suggest’, ‘correct’; directive e.g. ‘urge’ ‘instruct’; expressive ‘accuse’ ‘complain’. Metalinguistic – relating to the act of telling, eg ‘narrate’ ‘quote’. Prosodic – describing pitch, loudness or duration, eg ‘scream’. Paralinguistic – showing the manner of speech, eg ‘whisper’, ‘sob’.

Signalling discourse – structuring speech in some way, eg ‘repeat’, ‘pause’, ‘break off’. Ron has more reporting verbs than Hermione (2,154 and 1,937 respectively). The characters have almost the same number of reporting verbs of different types based on Caldas-Coulthard’s taxonomy (80 for Ron, 82 for Hermione). Ron has more neutral verbs than Hermione (77% compared to Scholarship essay for colleges and career goals 73%). Zotero? Eberhardt argues that the greater number of non-neutral reporting verbs for writing Hermione demonstrates that Rowling colours and mediates readers’ possible interpretations of Dissertation referencing zotero Hermione’s speech more than she does Ron’s. Eberhardt uses the term ‘manufactured’ (2017: 241) to describe Hermione’s speech, arguing that this greater focus on how she speaks follows a trend in popular media and fiction to specifically focus on how females look, speak and act. Eberhardt also uses statistical tests to Completing study vs survey show that Ron has more expressive reporting verbs than Hermione but that overall there is little difference in the way characters are represented with their use of any particular type of verb. Eberhardt argues that that this finding provides a good way of challenging literary criticism that claims Rowling presents her female characters as lacking power. Eberhardt finds a different pattern in Dissertation zotero, her exploration of the unique reporting verbs used by Rowling for Ron and Hermione. These are verbs used at least three times for either Ron (33 instances) or Hermione (34 instances) but are not used to frame the speech of another character.

Interestingly, Hermione’s unique reporting verbs are related to a high-pitched voice (such as ‘scream’, ‘squeal’, ‘shriek’ and jim carrey ‘squeak’) or show degrees of sadness and/or helplessness (such as ‘wail’ and ‘whimper’). Ron’s unique reporting verbs are related to a low-pitched voice either in terms of volume (such as ‘bellow’ and roar’), or in terms of being spoken under his breath (such as ‘mutter’ ‘grumble’ and ‘grunt’). Eberhardt suggests these show emotional disengagement. These examples seem to reproduce gender stereotypes in presenting Hermione as weak and passive and Ron as strong and disinterested. Dissertation Referencing Zotero? Finally, Eberhardt explores how each character’s speech is modified through the use of adverbials– words such as ‘loudly’ or ‘quietly’ that tell us more about how speech is performed. Again there is a pattern in the use of words unique to either Ron or Hermione.

Modifiers of Hermione’s speech tend to be related to ones such as ‘shrilly’, ‘briskly’, ‘timidly’ and ‘sadly’ which are related to study feelings, whereas modifiers of Ron’s speech are largely related to referencing what he knows rather than what he feels. These include ‘incredulously’ and ‘doubtfully’. In this instance, the use of modifiers may be interpreted as supporting a representation of an emotional female and a more rational male. Overall, Eberhardt’s article shows some interesting similarities and differences in the way the speech of Ron and Hermione is a good argument presented, and her corpus-based approach means she is able to identify patterns across long stretches of text rather than just from a few extracts. As Eberhardt claims at the end of her article, patterns of words across a whole novel may well reinforce binary notions of referencing gender and associate male and Dissertation sur la guerre female characters with certain traits and behaviours. A stylistic analysis can therefore bring those representations, and the ideologies behind them, to the surface and allow us to critically examine them. Caldas-Coulthard, R.C. (1987) ‘Reported speech in written narrative texts’, in M. Coulthard (ed.) Discussing Discourse . Birmingham: University of Birmingham Press, pp. Zotero? 149-167.

Gray, J. (1992) Men are From Mars, Women are From Venus: The Classic Guide to Studying the Opposite Sex . New York, NY: Harper Collins. Hunt, S. (2015) ‘Represenations of vs survey gender and agency in the Harry Potter series’, in P. Dissertation Zotero? Baker and T. McEnery (eds) Corpora and Discourse Studies: Integrating Discourse and Corpora . New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 288-284. This is a digest of the following article: Eberhardt, M. (2017) ‘Gendered representations through speech: The Case of the Harry Potter series’, Language and Literature 26 (3), 227–246. Using this in Write term for cash extra, teaching and learning.

You can use this research digest to support your teaching of Dissertation zotero AQA’s AS and Scholarship essay on educational A-level Language and Literature specification. Below are some suggestions. Examine representation of male and referencing female characters. Students could examine the representation of male and argument paper written female characters in the novel they are studying (Imagined worlds, A-level; Views and voices, AS-level) Questions could include: Are there patterns in the ways the speech of referencing zotero characters is presented through the use of direct speech reporting verbs and modifiers? How does this relate to gender and its representation in guerre, the novel as a whole? Does this representation change across the novel at all? For example, is there a difference between the presentation of a character’s direct speech at Dissertation referencing the beginning and the end of a novel?

If so, why might this be? To what extent does a focused analysis on reporting verbs support or challenge critical responses to the novel? Conduct an A-level NEA investigation. For their NEA investigation ( Making Connections , A-level), students could explore the use of speech verbs in the representation of gender in a literary and a non-literary text. A range of non-literary texts could be examined: political reporting, newspaper reports, articles in magazines and so on. Writing? Examine presentation of gender for referencing a younger readership. Students could take an example of term for cash extra children’s or young adult (YA) literature and examine how the text presents gender for a younger readership (see also our blog post on Peter Stockwell’s article The positioned reader ). This would provide a good opportunity for zotero students to consider the merits of choosing a children’s/YA literary text for their NEA investigation ( Making Connections , A-level) together with some non-literary material that represented children and gender in particular ways. Students could use corpus software to explore patterns in larger stretches of Completing study data and across whole texts. The CLiC.bham.ac.uk tool is a good place to start. It contains over forty nineteenth-century novels including Frankenstein and Dracula . The CLiC team will be running a workshop on this tool at the free Integrating English conference on Friday 3rd November 2017 at Dissertation Aston University.

1. Baker, Paul (2014) Using Corpora to Analyse Gender . Completing A Case Vs Survey? London: Bloomsbury. This offers a very useful introduction to both corpus methods and the concept of representation, specifically in the study of Dissertation referencing zotero gendered discourse. It also includes chapters analysing the language use of male and female academics, male bias in gendered paired words (eg man/woman), the representation of gay people in articles in a middle-market tabloid and representation and gender in personal dating ads. 2. Leech, Geoffrey and Short, Mick (2007) Style in Fiction: A Linguistic Introduction to English Fictional Prose , 2nd edn. London: Longman. Scholarship Essay For Colleges On Educational And Career? This is the Dissertation zotero, second edition of a classic text on the language of prose fiction. Essay On Educational And Career Goals? Chapter 10 offers a seminal introduction to the presentation of speech and referencing zotero thought. 3. Stephens, John (1992) Language and Ideology in Children’s Fiction . London: Longman. Stephens’ book is a fascinating study of how literature written for children projects ways of seeing the world and themselves as individuals within it. It argues that writing for children necessarily involves presenting (often indirectly) clear messages about Write term for cash extra how to behave, think and act. 4. Sunderland, Jane (2010) Language, Gender and Children’s Fiction . London: Continuum.

This is another book on children’s literature but with a specific gender focus. It analyses the ways male and female characters are represented in books that children read. Sunderland’s book is of particular interest since she draws on insights from stylistics to frame her analyses. Close reading: prose fiction (classroom activity) Reading time: 8 minutes. Close reading is a big part of exams, as well as an essential, everyday part of studying and developing an understanding of Dissertation a text. These five steps offer just one way of doing close reading. This five-step approach, designed for students, draws on four really helpful concepts from stylistics about the argument paper, process of interpretation, and takes care to avoid some common problems. It is designed for Dissertation referencing zotero extracts from prose fiction, but can be easily adapted for Cleanliness wikipedia other kinds of texts. Five steps in close reading for extracts from prose fiction. 1. Read through for initial impressions. Dissertation Zotero? Start by essay hospitals, noticing your initial impressions, rather than by looking for big themes straight away.

Themes are often broad and complex, like ‘a critique of capitalism’ in F. Scott Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby or ‘warning against totalitarianism’ in George Orwell’s Nineteen Eighty-Four. In novels, themes can arise through lots of small, sometimes subtle suggestions interspersed throughout the whole text. If you’re dealing with just a couple of paragraphs from a novel, looking for broad themes can be a struggle. It can lead you to desperately project things onto the extract which aren’t really there. Focusing only on themes can also lead you to referencing zotero miss or neglect the less obvious, often less specific or definite aspects of interpretation which contribute to those themes.

Starting by searching for big themes can also stifle your own interpretative skills. It can be easier, and sur la guerre often ultimately more insightful, to begin with initial impressions. Impressions can be less fully formed, more abstract and zotero less precise than the kinds of themes we often focus on when discussing texts. Initial impressions can include aspects of atmosphere (eg ‘gloominess’, ‘confusion and disorientation’, ‘a sense of essay for colleges goals innocence’ or ‘a sense of mystery’, etc), setting (eg ‘a vastness, desolation’) and character relations (eg ‘cold and uncooperative’), etc. These kinds of impressions are the very beginnings of interpretation, and zotero it is Scholarship essay for colleges on educational and career goals these aspects which usually add up to the fully formed themes: it is through these impressions that those themes are constructed, developed and zotero communicated. Start your close reading by asking yourself what initial impressions arise for you in your reading . This will keep your close reading grounded in the text and Dissertation guerre will help you pay proper attention to your own interpretative responses. The next step is to go back through the Dissertation referencing zotero, extract with those interpretative impressions in mind, and try to locate where, and how, in the text they arise. What do you notice, sentence by sentence?

Underline the parts which stand out to you, including those which seem to be fueling those interpretative impressions, and any others you might have. For everything you underline, draw an arrow out into Dissertation sur la guerre, the margins and note down the following: a) What kind of feature of language is it? Use terms and concepts you have learnt about to help you be detailed and precise. b) What is it doing, in this context? What is it contributing to the meaning of the extract? c) Does it relate to or connect up and with any other features and features of the referencing, extract? It is here that four useful principles of essay on educational and career goals interpretation come into play. Foregrounding: Foregrounding is the relative prominence (as consciously or subconsciously perceived by the reader) of particular features (through patterns and referencing zotero deviation).

An important part of the study of literature, and particularly close reading, is the act of paying attention to prominence, and making what might at first be subconscious impressions become conscious – bringing them into focus and conscious attention. Features are foregrounded through parallelism and a case study vs survey deviation, and they work to create meaning together through ‘cohesion of foregrounding’. Parallelism: According to Short’s (1996) ‘Parallelism rule’ for interpretation, paralleled structures suggest meaningful connections. Zotero? So, paralleled features like repeated sounds, or metaphors, or structural repetition such as each adjective in a list of three adjectives, lead us to look for and create connections between each repeated element. Each repeated element gains associations of the other in the pair or set. Their associations combine to create a whole, integrated impression made up of its parts. Deviation: Deviation is departure from a norm, convention, system or pattern. For example, you might encounter a list of adjectives all two syllables long, and then the for cash, list closes with one which is three syllables long. The deviation from the parallelism (the repeated pattern of two-syllable adjectives) makes the Dissertation referencing zotero, three-syllable adjective stand out, and seem or become more meaningfully significant. Cohesion of foregrounding: ‘Cohesion of foregrounding’ is a phrase coined by Cleanliness hospitals, Geoffrey Leech, in Style in Fiction (1970), to describe the way in which we try to link up foregrounded features and find meaning in the ways they function together.

A good example is the zotero, way in which we see a constellation in term papers for cash extra, an array of referencing stars, drawing a connecting shape between the stars that shine the brightest. Themes arise through our process of ‘connecting up the(foregrounded) dots’. Dissertation Guerre? These are processes of interpretation which underlie close reading, and which help to explain what we notice and how we find meaning. If you’re struggling to Dissertation zotero ‘see’ anything meaningful in a close reading text, focus on the parts which have triggered your initial interpretative impressions, and look for foregrounding, patterns and deviation. Tip: The reason the interpretative impressions you started with are called ‘initial’ interpretative impressions is because they are likely to evolve and change, as you start exploring them, into fuller and writing jim carrey deeper interpretative impressions and analytical insights. In some tasks, you’re given a close reading extract which is an extract from a bigger text, like a novel, which you’ve studied and are familiar with. The fourth step in this process is to zotero reflect on the kinds of Cleanliness essay things which you see at work in the close reading text, and explore connections between these and the themes and workings of the whole novel. As your interpretative skills and confidence develop, you’ll get better at seeing more and more in a close reading text.

Not all of Dissertation zotero it will be hugely interpretatively significant, and you may not have time to Cleanliness cover all of it in an exam. Select your key points based on how interpretatively significant they are. Dissertation? If something at work in Dissertation sur la guerre, this extract is Dissertation referencing zotero closely tied in with one of the Descriptive essay jim carrey, novel’s broader themes, it’s probably worth including, but only if you’ve got something to say about Dissertation referencing how it’s working here. Paper Written? If you’ve noticed something but you can’t get beyond naming and describing it (that is, you can’t go beyond description to analysis), think about leaving it out. Once you’ve chosen your key points, select the best (most illustrative) example(s) to quote and discuss when making that point. Again, you might not have time to include everything that illustrates that point: be selective. Remember, a response to a close reading exercise needs to be structured carefully, just like any other kind of essay. Decide on zotero, a sequence for your points . You could order them in a way which follows the extract’s sequential development, or you could start with the points which bear the most interpretative significance and work on Descriptive essay jim carrey, to those which are interesting but which you find less deeply meaningful. Alternatively, you could begin with points discussing aspects of the Dissertation zotero, extract which are interpretatively interesting but which don’t seem overtly connected to the themes of the novel as a whole, and then move on to the elements of the extract which do relate and contribute to the novel’s broader themes.

Now it’s time to write your response. Papers For Cash Extra? Don’t forget to include an introduction and a conclusion, just like any other essay. The paragraphs which make up the main body of the essay need to do the following: Each main paragraph should clearly communicate one point , through illustrative examples and analytical argument. That central point should explain the Dissertation referencing, relationship between a feature of the text and its interpretative effects . If you find yourself devoting a paragraph to describing a feature without talking about Cleanliness hospitals its effects, or describing interpretative effects without talking about how the text creates those effects, that paragraph needs to be developed or cut. Zotero? Always provide and discuss illustrative quotations to explain the relationship between the feature and effect. A main paragraph can do more than this, of course, such as considering other possible interpretations, but these are the essential elements. A last tip: Communicating clearly is more important than sounding intelligent or ‘academic’. If trying to write in a very sophisticated style results in your phrasing becoming confused and confusing and for colleges goals your meaning getting lost, step back to referencing a more simple and straightforward style. Write Term Papers Extra? There’s no point in using lots of long words and complex sentence structures if the person reading your essay can’t understand what you mean. Clarity is always the priority . Dissertation Referencing? This five step process is just one approach. There are lots of other ways of write a good argument written doing close reading.

Some will suit you and Dissertation your thinking and planning processes more than others. This approach does, though, cover some of the How to write a good argument paper, crucial bases, and helps you to avoid the risks of trying to map big themes onto extracts awkwardly or inauthentically, and instead make convincing, text-based arguments explaining your interpretation. Underpinned by zotero, four key stylistic concepts, it offers a structure for paying close attention to and interpreting the extract itself, always holding firmly onto the relationship between features and interpretative effects. Try it out with some extracts from texts you’re studying and see what kinds of close readings it helps you create. For more on foregrounding, parallelism, deviation and cohesion of foregrounding, see Exploring the Language of Poems, Plays and Prose by Mick Short (Longman, 1996) and ‘Ling131’, an online stylistics course created by the same author (you can find a description and link in the ‘Online Resources’ entry in a case vs survey, our Reading Suggestions category).

Analysing Iago#8217;s weasel words using rhetoric and pragmatics (research digest) Reading time: 7 minutes. • Summary of the Dissertation, paper. • Keller on Iago’s weasel words. • Using this in teaching and learning. Stefan Keller combines ancient rhetoric and Descriptive writing jim carrey three contemporary linguistic theories – speech act theory, relevance theory and politeness theory – to explore Iago’s language in act 3, scene 3 of Othello. These linguistic theories have been introduced in some of our previous blog entries. Links to these posts can be found at Dissertation the end of this section. Keller illustrates how these theories can be used alongside an understanding of classical rhetoric to term papers for cash extra analyse the language of Shakespeare and to Dissertation referencing gain insight into his characters, their communication styles and their relationships. The sophistication and breadth of Shakespeare’s use of rhetorical figures suggests, according to Keller and others, that Shakespeare was among several Renaissance writers who were well-versed in essay, these classical models (handbooks of which, such as Henry Peacham’s The Garden of Eloquence (1593), were very popular at the time). As Keller notes, classical rhetoric focusses on techniques available to monologic oration. Pragmatic models of communication, though, can also accommodate conversational dialogue, and Dissertation pay attention to the communicative context. Pragmatic models are therefore in some ways more appropriate for analysis of drama, and provide a useful addition to classical rhetoric in the study of Shakespearian dialogue. This is Scholarship essay for colleges on educational and career goals particularly the case for Othello, where Iago’s disturbing manipulation of Othello, through conversation alone, is at the heart of the play.

As Keller writes, the ‘challenge for Dissertation referencing Iago is to achieve his appalling goal while appearing to Cleanliness essay hospitals be helpful and unobtrusive’ (405). His success relies on his ability to guide Othello to infer meaning from what he says (and doesn’t say), while the Dissertation zotero, surface meaning of essay hospitals his speech allows for plausible deniability. Keller cites Grice’s co-operative principle (within speech act theory): “Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.” (Grice 1989: 13) Speakers can (and very often do) purposefully and meaningfully violate this principle, by being obscure or by overtly exaggerating, for example, to invite inference. Inference essentially works through the hearer. a) noticing that the what the speaker has said isn’t as clear, informative, honest or relevant as one might expect (in accordance with the co-operative principle); b) assuming that the speaker is therefore trying to communicate something more through this obfuscation; and. c) trying to work out (led by what the Dissertation referencing, speaker has said) what else the speaker might be trying to suggest. Often inference works through the hearer trying to make sense of how the speaker’s words are relevant to the topic of conversation. Keller draws out some illustrative examples of Iago’s style of conversational manipulation, and a good paper written analyses them in relation to classical rhetoric, the co-operative principle, and ideas from referencing, relevance theory and politeness theory. He gives an example of Iago’s self-interruption (the rhetorical figure of aposiopesis) in which Iago overtly denies the import and relevance of what he has said, refusing to directly answer Othello, leaving Othello to wonder about and Dissertation sur la guerre try to infer why Iago is being obscure. IAGO: Ha, I like not that. OTHELLO: What dost thou say? IAGO: Nothing, my lord; or if – I know not what. Referencing Zotero? (3.3.34-6) Othello continues, ‘Was that not Cassio parted from my wife?’, to on educational and career which Iago responds:

Cassio, my lord? no, sure, I cannot think it. Dissertation Referencing? That he would steal away so guilty-like. How To A Good Paper Written? Seeing you coming. (3.3.38-40) Both of Iago’s responses here also involve paralipsis, which Keller defines as ‘pretending to pass over Dissertation zotero a matter in order to give it more emphasis’ (403). Iago could simply have replied ‘Yes’ or ‘I think so’ to Othello’s second question here. Completing A Case Study Vs Survey? Instead, Othello is Dissertation referencing zotero directed by the length of Completing study Iago’s reply to Dissertation referencing infer that Iago feels this extra detail is important. Significantly, ‘I cannot think it’ is not ‘I do not think it’, which allows for the inference (among other possible inferences) that maybe he does think this, but something stops him from wanting to. Iago also adds a description of the manner of Cassio’s supposed departure, ‘steal[ing] away’ (neatly evoking associations of theft), ‘guilty-like’ on (and therefore implicitly in reaction to) ‘seeing [Othello] coming’. Term Papers For Cash? As Keller says, ‘by denying the relevance of Dissertation Cassio’s behaviour, Iago makes it all the more relevant for Othello’, that is, by implying that it would make no sense for Cassio to behave that way, Iago leads Othello to consider why Cassio might behave that way – to infer the argument written, contextual relevance of such behaviour (403). Iago begins his second response here by Dissertation zotero, partly echoing Othello’s words (‘Cassio, my lord?’).

This rhetorical figure is called anadiplosis, and it occurs twice as often in Othello as it does in Hamlet, and three times as often as it does in King Lear (Keller, 404, n.). Keller cites the Descriptive writing essay jim carrey, following exchange: OTHELLO: Is he [Cassio] not honest? IAGO: Honest, my lord? OTHELLO: Honest? Ay, honest.

IAGO: My lord, for aught I know. OTHELLO: What does though think? IAGO: Think, my lord? OTHELLO: Think, my lord! By heaven, though echo’st me. As if there were some monster in my thought. Too hideous to Dissertation be shown. (3.3.103-11) On the surface, direct repetition does not add meaning, but only Cleanliness hospitals, repeats it.

The meaningfulness of repetition therefore lies in what can be inferred from the act of repetition itself within the Dissertation referencing zotero, context of the conversation. Sur La? The exclamation at the end of Othello’s repetition of ‘Think, my lord!’ leading into his direct comments on Iago’s echoing, serves to signal his frustration, for example. Iago’s responses here, though, are more controlled: they could be an Dissertation referencing zotero, act of double-checking he has heard Othello correctly, but this in itself suggests Iago does not believe or understand what he is hearing, hence the need to check. Othello picks up on Write term extra, this implied incredulity, and the sub-textual suggestion, in turn, that his own thinking is too deviant to be easily understood or shared. This exchange also highlights Iago’s tactical use of politeness strategies.

Keller notes that this scene involves ‘the highest frequency of “my lord” vocatives from Dissertation, Iago in the play’ (406). These vocatives serve as ‘on record’ (overt) ‘positive politeness’, affirming that the addressee is liked, and that his or her wants are shared and sur la guerre supported, etc. Iago also often uses ‘negative politeness’, apologising and making excuses for possibly causing offence (through lines such as ‘my lord, pardon me’, 3.3.13, and ‘I do beseech you … [to ] take no notice’, 3.3.147-53). Zotero? He also suggests potentially offensive things only indirectly, or ‘off record’ – that is, ‘in such a way that it is not possible to How to write a good argument paper written attribute only one clear communicative intention’ to the utterance (Brown and Levinson, 1994: 70). Keller describes Iago’s strategy here as ‘suggestive obscurity’ (Keller, 407). As in the previous extract, Othello increasingly names and makes explicit what he perceives to be Iago’s implicit suggestions.

He even states. Exchange me for a goat. When I shall turn the business of my soul. To such exsufflicate and blown surmises, Matching thy inference. (3.3.183-6) It would appear, in referencing, moments such as these, that Iago has failed in wikipedia, in his attempts to stay on the side of subtle suggestion and referencing have Othello feel responsible for his own inferences. These moments are fleeting, however, as suggested by Othello’s subsequent plea that Iago speaks ‘With franker spirit’ (3.3.198). Scholarship Essay For Colleges On Educational Goals? Iago’s deniability remains just plausible enough for Othello to be torn between self-loathing and Dissertation referencing zotero suspicion. Keller’s article usefully illustrates how some contemporary linguistic theories can take textual study beyond labelling rhetorical figures to Dissertation sur la guerre analysing how the utterances these figures actually function to create the play’s powerful effects. Brown, Penelope, and Stephen C. Levinson. Politeness. Dissertation? Some Universals in essay, Language Use. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994.

Grice, Paul, Studies in Dissertation zotero, the Way of Words. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1989. This is Cleanliness wikipedia hospitals a research digest of the following article: Keller, Stefan D., ‘Combining Rhetoric and Pragmatics to Read Othello’, English Studies, 91.4 (2010): 398–411. Using this in teaching and learning. The ideas below suggest how you can use this research digest to support your teaching of Othello on AQA’s A-level English Language and Literature specification.

You could also adapt the ideas to any of the other plays studied on Dramatic Encounters and to supporting students preparing for NEA (Making Connections). 1. As a starting point in exploring inference and politeness in Othello, students can. Zotero? a) look at How to write paper written one exchange where a response is Dissertation not directly relevant to the preceding utterance, and list the Dissertation guerre, possible inferences that are available, thinking about Dissertation zotero how it could be relevant to the conversational context. These inferences can then be put in essay, order from ‘strong’ (most plausible inference) to ‘weak’ (least plausible inference), and Dissertation referencing the students can discuss and justify their ordering. This activity will help students to better understand the Completing a case study vs survey, process of inferencing and different degrees of inference. b) look at one instance of politeness in the play, and discuss what aspect of the hearer’s personality or position is Dissertation referencing zotero being overtly or covertly appealed to or protected. This will help students understand how characters use language to relate to each other, and to position themselves and each other in relationships. For Cash? 2. Dissertation? Keller points out that ‘strictly speaking, “off-record” utterances are impossible in drama, as the audience is always fully aware of Iago’s intentions’ (406). Dissertation? Students can explore the added complexity of Dissertation referencing conversational implicature and inference in the context of drama, where there is a double layer of communication (character to character, and playwright to audience), and at least two communicative contexts – here one in which Othello knows certain information, and one in How to a good argument written, which the audience knows far more. These different communicative contexts guide inference differently for Dissertation referencing zotero different hearers.

Students can visually map out these layers/contexts of communication. They can then go further to explore the relationships between inference and ‘dramatic irony’ in this play and others. This will help students understand how meaning is communicated in drama. 3. Othello himself, in shining the spotlight on the subtext, is shown in this scene (and elsewhere) to speak frankly, in marked contrast to Iago. Essay Wikipedia Hospitals? Keller begins and ends his study of this play with attention to the plain speaking of Dissertation Desdemona and Dissertation sur la guerre Emilia, which is similarly cast as all the more admirable in contrast to Iago’s sophistry. Desdemona and Emilia do speak with rhetorical skill (employing a range of referencing zotero classical figures), but, Keller implies, with none of the insidious and off record strategies of essay Iago.

This is not to say that their communication does not involve and invite inference (as most communication does), but that their explicit and implicit communication is working in Dissertation zotero, a different balance, and to different ends. In this light, the communication styles of Desdemona and Emilia could offer a route into the gender politics of the play. Students can investigate literary criticism which discusses the play’s gender politics, including feminist readings, and can explore how far and in what ways the communication styles of Desdemona and Emilia can account for these readings. Some of the related blog entries listed at the top of this research digest provide suggestions for reading on term, these pragmatic theories (relevance theory, politeness theory and speech act theory). A research digest on ‘Implicature and literary texts’, summarising an referencing, article by write written, Adrian Pilkington on ‘Poetic Effects’ from Lingua 1 (1992): 29-51 (posted on 28/09/2016) A research digest on ‘Impoliteness and entertainment’, summarising an referencing zotero, article by Jonathan Culpeper, ‘Impoliteness and entertainment in the television quiz show: The Weakest Link’ from Journal of Politeness Research 1 (2005): 35-72 (posted on 06/04/2016) Classroom activities on ‘Understanding implicatures’ (posted on 17/11/2016) Reading suggestions on ‘Politeness and impoliteness’ (posted on 17/06/2016) Keller points readers towards other works specifically on politeness theory and Othello : Brown, Roger, and Albert Gilman. ‘Politeness Theory and Shakespeare’s Four Major Tragedies.’ Language in Society 18 (1989): 159–212 Busse, Ulrich. Linguistic Variation in the Shakespeare Corpus . Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 2002 Kopytko, Roman. Paper Written? ‘Linguistic Politeness Strategies in Shakespeare’s Plays.’ In Historical Pragmatics , edited by A. H. Jucker. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1995 Magnusson, Lynne. Shakespeare and Social Dialogue. Dramatic Language and Elizabethan Letters. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999.

For work using speech act theory and the co-operative principle to Dissertation zotero explore Shakespeare’s work, see. Cleanliness Hospitals? Fish, Stanley. ‘How to do Things with Austin and Searle: Speech Act Theory and Dissertation Literary Criticism.’ Modern Language Notes 91 (1976): 983–1025 Gilbert, Anthony. ‘Techniques of Persuasion in Julius Caesar and Othello .’ Neophilologus 81 (1997): 309–23. Dissertation Sur La? Analysing Implicatures (classroom activity) Reading time: 4 minutes. This is the second of two posts with ideas for developing understanding of ‘implicature’ (discussed in Dissertation referencing, a previous research digest on ‘Implicature and literary texts’ ). These activities apply the notion of implicature in analysing texts and write a good understanding some of their effects. Referencing? This could support students interested in: Implicatures across literary and non-literary material ( Making Connections , spec section 4.3). Exploring interaction ( Exploring Conflict , spec section 4.2). First: identifying and exploring implicatures in texts.

Ask students to look at any text and identify some of its implicatures. They should also make a note of thoughts which might be about implicatures, but which they are not sure of. These will be a basis for later discussion. Students begin working individually and then work in essay wikipedia hospitals, pairs or small groups to compare answers. Comparing notes will almost always lead individual students to referencing zotero have new thoughts about the text. Find a text or use a set one from vs survey, Exploring Conflict (spec section 4.2) and make a note of as many possible implicatures of the Dissertation, text as you can. Writing Essay? Compare your list with other students, considering each possible implicature and commenting to zotero what extent you are sure it is an How to argument, implicature. Try to referencing zotero sort the implicatures into types: which ones are stronger? which ones are weaker?

Which ones leave you unsure about whether or not they were intended? Consider who might be intending to communicate each of these implicatures: is it the author of the text? a narrator? characters? somebody else? are there any you are not sure about? Now focus on on educational goals, one fairly strong implicature of the text. Suggest further lines of Dissertation referencing reasoning so that you might derive a wider range of weaker implicatures starting from essay hospitals, it. Discussion: #8220;to what extent do you think what you have been doing contributes to (or counts as) developing a fuller interpretation of the text?#8221; Following on from the previous task, this compares texts and how many stronger or weaker implicatures they give rise to. Any texts could be compared, but one idea would be to start with two texts, including one which clearly gives rise to a wider range of weaker implicatures. For example, you could compare Wendy Cope’s poem Bloody Men with William Blake’s The Sick Rose . Students can repeat this activity to explore further texts, or compare two parts of the same text. Consider the referencing, ‘gun’ simile at the beginning of Seamus Heaney’s Digging and the ‘dig’ metaphor at the end. Dissertation Sur La? This example is discussed in a previous digest post, ‘Implicatures and literary texts’. Select your texts. List some strong implicatures of each text.

List some weaker implicatures of each text. List some conclusions which might be implicatures of each text but which you are not sure about. Now compare the two texts to consider: which one has a greater number of stronger implicatures and which one more weaker one? Discussion: #8220;what does this suggest about the two texts?#8221; This task develops understanding by Dissertation, intervention, i.e. by rewriting texts to give rise to more or fewer stronger and weaker implicatures. This can support students thinking about their own re-writing as part of Writing About Society (spec section 4.2.2). Writing Jim Carrey? Revisit a text from the referencing, previous task. Make a note of a case vs survey some strong implicatures of this text. Make a note of some weaker implicatures. Comment on your overall impression of the text with regard to how many stronger and how many weaker implicatures it suggests. Referencing? Now rewrite some passages to change the status of particular assumptions, i.e. either to make some weaker implicatures stronger or to make some stronger implicatures weaker. Look at Completing vs survey a different text and compare it with the one you have been working on.

Suggest some rewrites to one or both texts to zotero make them more like each other. Discussion: #8220;what does this suggest about the texts you have been looking at?#8221; A student who has worked through these will have developed their understanding of implicatures and how they can vary across texts. They will also have developed their understanding of how to create and edit texts while thinking about the implicatures they are likely to generate. This can be useful for Write term papers extra the NEA, and help students generate their own data for comparison with their chosen literary text. Understanding Implicatures (classroom activity) Reading time: 7 minutes. This is the first of two posts with ideas for developing understanding of ‘implicature’ (discussed in zotero, the previous research digest on Dissertation guerre, implicature and literary texts ), including the ideas that implicatures can be stronger or weaker and that texts vary with regard to how many implicatures they suggest.

It mainly targets the Non-Exam Assessment (NEA). The ideas suggest how texts can be compared in Dissertation, terms of the kinds of implicatures they are likely to How to write paper give rise to. So they could form the basis of comparison between a literary text and a non-literary text. If students have been working on zotero, particular pragmatic theories, eg on Grice’s approach or relevance theory, they can apply their understanding of how these approaches would explain the derivation of particular implicatures. However, these activities show how the notion of ‘implicature’ can be used in analysing texts even without focusing directly on particular theoretical approaches. The term ‘implicature’ was coined by the philosopher Paul Grice to refer to indirectly communicated assumptions, eg to sur la the assumption Bella communicates here that she is planning to read Scott’s new book: Andy: Are you going to read Scott’s new book when it#8217;s out?

Bella: I read everything he writes. The first set of activities here contains tasks to help students focus on what implicatures are and what kinds of zotero implicatures utterances can convey. The activities in Part 2, which will be posted separately, aim to develop understanding of specific texts by exploring some of their implicatures. While the examples presented below have been chosen to illustrate particular ideas, the activities could focus on examples taken from texts created by for colleges on educational goals, students. In introducing implicature, it’s important to start with some fairly straightforward examples like the one above about Bella planning to Dissertation read Scott’s book. A good starting point is simply to present a number of essay examples and ask students to identify possible implicatures. Students are asked here to Dissertation referencing look at term extra the final utterances in these exchanges and to identify an implicature which they think the speaker is likely to communicate. (Andy is asking Bella about an essay which she has been struggling with for a long time) Andy: How’s the essay going? Bella: Lovely weather just now, isn’t it? (In a shop, Bella has taken two tins of beans to the counter and is about to pay for them) Assistant: They’re three for two just now. (Andy is asking Bella about her new employee Neil) Andy: How’s Neil getting on?

Is he a good worker? Bella: Well, he always arrives in good time. When using examples like this, it#8217;s important to clarify that these have underspecified contexts, meaning interpretations might vary depending on other aspects of the context. Referencing Zotero? Given this, there are no definitive right answers, or sets of right answers. Different implicatures might follow if we imagine different contextual assumptions. Having established that students have a reasonable understanding of what an implicature is, this task then considers how implicatures vary depending on Scholarship essay goals, particular contextual assumptions. If students haven#8217;t all made the same suggestions for the examples above, they can begin to Dissertation explore this by considering what would make different implicatures more or less likely. A Good Argument Written? If students generally agree about implicatures in the previous examples, consider instances where further contextual assumptions are needed to work out the speaker#8217;s intended to implication (with no contextual gloss).

Here, instructions should make clear that Bella’s individual responses could be understood differently depending on Dissertation, the contextual assumptions available to Andy. Students are then asked to make two suggestions about possible implicatures and to identify contextual assumptions which would make each one likely. Andy: Do you know if Scott’s going to Ellen’s party? Bella: Jake’s going. Andy: Would you like a coffee? Bella: Coffee would keep me awake. Andy: Do you fancy seeing that new Crocodile film with me?

Bella: It’s a horror film. In each case, Bella’s utterance is providing information which will lead to an implicated response. To see what kind of term papers answer she intends, we need to know a bit more. The most likely assumptions we will think of are: whether Scott likes or tries to avoid Jake, whether Bella wants to Dissertation referencing zotero stay awake or not, and whether Bella likes or hates horror films. Students can explore this and other examples, considering how different sets of contextual assumptions make particular implicatures more or less likely. These could form the basis of some data generation for NEA. c) Stronger and weaker implicatures. Having established a reasonable understanding of what an implicature is, these tasks ask students to consider two ideas mentioned in the research digest on ‘Implicature and literary texts’: first, that utterances typically convey more than one implicature; second that we can be more or less sure that certain implicatures are intended, i.e. they can be ‘stronger’ or ‘weaker’. Completing A Case Study? A good starting point is to ask students to look at one of the previous examples and consider other implicatures which might be conveyed at the same time as an implicature they have already discussed. This should work for any of the Dissertation referencing, ‘party’, ‘coffee’ or ‘crocodile’ examples.

They might, for example, assume one interpretation of the party response, eg that Scott will not be going to the party since Jake is going. If we assume that Scott will not be going to written the party since Jake is going, what other conclusions might we draw from this? Possible answers include: that Scott does not like Jake, that anyone who would like Scott to come to Dissertation their events should not invite Jake, that Scott might have a negative attitude to essay jim carrey anyone who likes Jake, speculations about why Scott does not like Jake, and so on. Students can then move on to consider other things which Bella might suggest by indicating that she likes or hates horror films. This might include assumptions about relative closeness to others based on their attitude to horror films, or other things which the refusal or acceptance of an offer of coffee might suggest (note that this is likely to raise the idea that an Dissertation zotero, invitation for coffee can be a disguised sexual invitation; in my classes, this often leads to sur la discussion of the phrase ‘netflix and chill’).

The aim of this discussion is to establish: a. that utterances typically have more than one implicature. Dissertation? b. that we can be more or less confident about each potential implicature (i.e. they can be ‘stronger’ or ‘weaker’) c. that we are sometimes unsure whether a particular assumption is an intended implicature or not. Students can then go on to consider other examples (again possibly forming the basis of some data generation for the NEA), and experiment with them by study vs survey, imagining different possible utterances which would make particular implicatures stronger or weaker, eg Bella might have said ‘I hate horror films’ in response to Dissertation referencing zotero the question about Crocodile . Here are some sources to help with understanding implicature and these activities: Chapman, Siobhan. 2011. Pragmatics . Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke.

An accessible introduction to pragmatics. Clark, Billy. 2013. Relevance Theory . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. An introduction to relevance theory which also discusses Grice’s work and the idea that implicatures can be stronger or weaker. Clark, Billy. Completing Vs Survey? 2016.

Pragmatics. In Marcello Giovanelli and Dan Clayton (eds.) Knowing About Language: Linguistics and the Secondary English Classroom . Routledge, London: 64-76. Discusses applications of ideas from pragmatics in secondary classrooms. Implicature and literary texts (research digest) Reading time: 9 minutes. This post digests Adrian Pilkington’s influential paper on ‘poetic effects’, which shows how ideas from pragmatics can be used in exploring literary texts and in accounting for literary interpretations. The paper refers to Seamus Heaney’s poem ‘Digging’. Pilkington focuses on the notion of zotero ‘implicature’, originating in the work of H. Paul Grice. Grice coined the term to Dissertation refer to what we indirectly communicate.

We can illustrate this using an exchange discussed in the paper by Pilkington: Implicature: Beth does not want an alcoholic drink. Here Beth directly communicates that she is a Mormon and indirectly communicates (‘implicates’) that she does not want an alcoholic drink. This follows as long as Alan access the following contextual assumption: Mormons do not drink alcoholic drinks. Grice developed an approach which aimed to explain how implicatures are communicated. Dissertation Referencing Zotero? Pilkington’s paper focuses on guerre, more recent ideas, developed by Dan Sperber and Dissertation referencing zotero Deirdre Wilson in their work on relevance theory. They suggest that utterances typically communicate a range of implicatures with varying amounts of evidence for each one. Cleanliness Hospitals? While Grice’s approach would have focused on the implicature that Beth does not want an Dissertation, alcoholic drink, Pilkington points out that Beth’s utterance also makes it possible to infer further conclusions, including: Beth does not want to drink other alcoholic drinks. Beth does not drink coffee. Beth does not smoke. Beth might practise polygamy.

These depend on Alan accessing and using the assumptions that Mormons don’t drink coffee, don’t smoke, and that they can be more likely to practise polygamy. There are other possible conclusions which Alan might arrive at (depending on whether appropriate contextual assumptions occur to Completing a case him) and which he is likely to be less sure of, such as: I will not have much in common with Beth. Referencing Zotero? Beth might be offended by my way of living. Completing A Case Study? These are weaker implicatures than those about zotero coffee, smoking and marriage, which are in Scholarship, turn less strong than the implicature that Beth would not like an alcoholic drink. In fact, it might be hard for Alan to decide whether Beth intends to Dissertation zotero convey an assumption about her attitude to Alan’s way of life at all. Two key ideas developed within relevance theory are: first, that implicatures can be stronger or weaker; second, that there is not always a clear distinction between intentionally communicated implicatures and conclusions for Dissertation sur la guerre which the addressee is wholly responsible. Pilkington goes on to consider how weak implicatures can contribute to what have been termed ‘poetic effects’, which are often thought of as vague, impressionistic and hard to capture.

Relevance theorists have suggested that poetic effects involve the communication of a relatively wide range of relatively weak implicatures. Pilkington discusses the effects of repetition in the Biblical utterance: Oh Absalom, my son my son! King David says this when he hears that his son Absalom has been murdered. The repetition encourages thoughts about David’s relationship with his son and his emotions on hearing of his son’s death. Pilkington suggests that this repetition gives rise to poetic effects because we can access a wide range of assumptions about their relationship, how it might feel for Dissertation referencing David to have lost his son, and so on. Essay Wikipedia? By contrast, repetitions such as the following will seem pointless or ridiculous in referencing, most contexts because we cannot access such a rich set of possible implicatures: Oh Anna, my colleague, my colleague! The pubs have closed, closed. The relevance-theoretic account suggests that poetic effects arise when an Cleanliness hospitals, utterance communicates a rich set of weak implicatures.

Pilkington’s discussion of ‘Digging’ focuses in particular on the ending of the poem. He suggests that this gives rise to a fairly wide range of implicatures because the rest of the poem has made this possible. Dissertation Referencing Zotero? The poem is ‘spoken’ by a poet (who clearly has a lot in common with Heaney himself) sitting at a table near a window and writing. The poem begins: Between my finger and my thumb. The squat pen rests; snug as a gun. Outside, his father is digging in the garden.

The poem leaps back in time to when his father was younger and digging in potato fields. His father ‘could handle a spade’ and comes from How to a good paper written, a long line of men who dug the land. The poem contrasts the father with the poet who has not joined in this tradition. The poem ends back at the window: Between my finger and my thumb. The squat pen rests. What inferences do readers make at the end of the poem? Pilkington focuses on the key metaphor evoked by the use of dig as something the poet will do with a pen.

He suggests that the Dissertation, earlier mention of the Write term extra, father and his digging in potato fields, along with other contextual assumptions, make it possible for referencing us to access a wide range of relatively weak implicatures. Pilkington cannot come close to listing all of the vs survey, possibilities but he lists a small set as a starting point, including these: Digging is how the poet’s forefathers earned their living. Digging is an activity with a long tradition in the community. Digging involves hard work. Digging involves intense concentration. Digging is a manly occupation. Digging is a worthy occupation. Digging involves taking things from below the referencing zotero, surface. For each one, he suggests, we can go on to think about ways in which writing poetry is similar or different to the kind of digging his father was engaged in. This poem is sur la successful because the effort involved in thinking about the Dissertation referencing zotero, broad range of implicatures it suggests is rewarded by the relatively rich interpretations this leads to. Essay On Educational Goals? He also considers how deriving this set of Dissertation weak implicatures might lead to emotional responses and to what extent this approach might account for more broadly aesthetic experiences.

A key feature of the on educational and career goals, paper is that it shows how ideas from referencing, pragmatics are useful in accounting for literary interpretations and in exploring literary texts. Exploring the implicatures of texts is a fairly accessible way of beginning to explore texts and interpretations of texts more fully. This is a digest of the following article: Pilkington, Adrian. 1992. Guerre? Poetic Effects. Lingua 87.1: 29-51. Using this in teaching and learning. You can use the ideas in zotero, this paper in Dissertation sur la, the following ways to develop understanding of Dissertation zotero pragmatics and literary texts: The notion that implicatures can be stronger or weaker is a key notion in Write papers for cash, relevance theory.

This contrasts with Grice’s approach which tended to focus on one strong implicature at a time. Students can explore this contrast by referencing zotero, looking at short texts and analysing them in three stages: a. identify one strong implicature of the text. b. make a list of other implicatures which might follow from the same text. c. for each implicature, identify contextual assumptions which give rise to the implicature. This activity could lead to broader discussion of what kinds of texts are more likely to be read for writing jim carrey a wider range of weaker implicatures and which are more likely to be read for a narrower range of zotero stronger ones (see activity 4 below). Write Papers Extra? Students can develop their own spoken and Dissertation referencing zotero written communication by rewriting utterances to adjust the likelihood of particular inferences being made by hearers or readers of their utterances. This might also focus on the extent to essay wikipedia hospitals which different versions give rise to stronger or weaker implicatures. Referencing Zotero? They could explicitly explore the effect of this in Write term extra, their recreative writing ( Writing about society , A level; People and places , AS level)’ Students can explore the referencing zotero, novel and poems they are studying ( Imagined worlds and Poetic voices A level; Views and voices, AS level) by making a list of possible implicatures which they think the text suggests and organising them into stronger or weaker implicatures. Alongside this, they can consider what contextual assumptions lead to each one. Which conclusions depend only on assumptions derived from the text?

Which derive from more general contextual assumptions? Do some of them depend on a good paper written, knowledge about the author? Or the context in which the text was produced? Students can aim to develop richer or shallower interpretations of Dissertation referencing particular texts across the specification and on How to argument written, the NEA ( Making Connections , A-level) by focusing to a greater or lesser degree on stronger or weaker implicatures. Dissertation? A fairly shallow interpretation of a text might focus mainly on ‘what happens’ in the text. A richer one would focus on broader themes, the psychology of How to write paper written characters, the emotional impact on audiences, and so on. Dissertation? Students can reflect on jim carrey, this explicitly by zotero, comparing different kinds of interpretations of texts and different kinds of reading practices. What would a very shallow interpretation of a particular text look like? What would a much richer one look like? Are there texts which are more likely to give rise to richer interpretations than others?

Students can also compare different parts of particular texts and alternative possible versions of the same text. This might inform the study of writing essay any text on the AS and A level specifications. Pilkington suggests that the connection between the Dissertation zotero, pen and a gun at a case the start of Dissertation referencing ‘Digging’ (where the How to a good, pen rests ‘snug as a gun’) does not lead very far and Dissertation so has a much less rich interpretation than the hospitals, notion of the pen as something to zotero dig with at the end. Students could explore this in greater detail, listing possible implicatures of both parts. Alternatively, they might consider other utterances which lead to Descriptive essay jim carrey weaker interpretations. Pilkington suggests, for Dissertation referencing zotero example, that the simple sentence ‘The poet digs with his pen’ would be far less evocative or interesting than Heaney’s poem. Students could discuss why this is so.

There has been a huge amount of work on pragmatics since Grice developed his ideas over 50 years ago (his key texts began to be shared in the 1960s and published in the 1970s but some of the work predates this). Essay? Here are some sources on referencing zotero, pragmatics in general, on relevance theory in particular, and on pragmatics and literary interpretation. Chapman, Siobhan. 2011. Pragmatics. Essay Wikipedia Hospitals? Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke. Referencing? An accessible introduction to pragmatics, covering Grice’s approach and other approaches developed from Completing a case, that, including discussion of relevance theory. Blakemore, Diane.

1992. Understanding Utterances. Wiley-Blackwell, Oxford. An accessible introductory textbook presenting a relevance-theoretic approach to pragmatics. Clark, Billy. 2013. Relevance Theory. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. A more comprehensive accessible account of relevance theory, including discussion of how it developed from the work of Grice.

Dan Sperber’s website, here. This site provides access to downloadable versions of a wide range of Dissertation referencing zotero work by Sperber, including work with Deirdre Wilson. Relevance Theory Online Bibliographic Service, here. This site gathers all academic sources which discuss or apply ideas from relevance theory. This is probably not the most helpful place to find sources when beginning to study pragmatics but it is writing interesting to see just how much work has been published on this approach to pragmatics. Pilkington, Adrian. 2000. Poetic Effects.

John Benjamins, Amsterdam. Referencing Zotero? A book-length study of poetic effects from the perspective of relevance theory. Develops further the guerre, ideas in the paper discussed in this digest, including the limits of how far this approach can go in accounting for emotional and affective responses to literary and artistic works. Chapman, Siobhan and Billy Clark (eds.) 2014. Pragmatic Literary Stylistics. Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke. A collection of Dissertation chapters applying ideas from pragmatics in accounting for essay wikipedia hospitals interpretations of literary texts. Dissertation Referencing? It includes an introduction with general comments on different approaches to pragmatics and their relevance in approaches to literary texts. What makes a narrator ‘reliable’? (Research digest) Reading time: 5 minutes.

Reliable and unreliable narration have been widely debated within literary scholarship over the last half century. However, as Terence Murphy notes, significantly more attention has been paid to trying to Scholarship figure out how an impression of narratorial un reliability is referencing zotero constructed than has been paid to working out Descriptive writing jim carrey, how and why a narrator might be believed to be reliable. Murphy also refers to Wayne Booth#8217;s seminal book The Rhetoric of Fiction (1961) which contains Booth#8217;s discussion of narratorial reliability and unreliability. Here, Booth suggests that Nick Carraway, the first-person narrator of F. Scott Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby (1922), is Dissertation referencing a good example of a reliable narrator. On this basis, Murphy offers a brief discussion of the key critical debates around the concepts of reliability and unreliability, and writing essay also of the relative scope for perceived un/reliability of first-person narration in contrast to third-person narration, which is usually considered more distant and objective.

Picking up the Dissertation, example of Nick Carraway, Murphy then suggests that there are five #8216;determinants#8217; of reliable narration in first-person fiction, and argues that unreliability is created through departure from or absence of those determinants. He presents these five determinants as a model which can be used as a critical tool to discuss the relative reliability of any first-person narrator. Murphy’s five determinants of reliability. 1) Narration from a place of security , at the place where the narrator was born or has settled. Murphy points out Completing a case study vs survey, that Carraway narrates from “back home” (Fitzgerald 1990 [1922]: 167), which, Murphy suggests, is zotero testament to Nick’s maturity and freedom.

2) Use of the ‘middle’ style of standard English (as according to classical rhetoric), neither colloquial and marked by representation of accent and How to a good paper dialect, nor poetic, ornate, sophisticated and opaque. Dissertation Referencing Zotero? Nick’s language is How to write argument of this ‘middle’ style. 3) Observer-narrator status . Nick Carraway is an zotero, example of a narrator who is writing essay jim carrey not the main character in the story, but instead tells the referencing, story of that main character. Sur La? Nick’s own role in the plot is limited. 4) Ethical maturity and a conventional moral stance . Nick Carraway has been through the referencing zotero, trials of the First World War, which has tested and How to write paper developed his moral beliefs, and which earns him respect. 5) Retrospective re-evaluation or re-interpretation of another character . Murphy contrasts plot structures which centre upon a hero’s journey, or upon referencing zotero a new self-realisation on the part of the first-person narrator, with plot structures which centre upon the observer-narrator’s re-evaluation of another character. How To Argument Paper? In The Great Gatsby , Murphy argues, the Dissertation referencing zotero, climax of the plot is Nick’s re-interpretation and new understanding of essay wikipedia Gatsby, which replaces Nick’s prior impressions. Murphy’s discussion of each of the five determinants exposes some complexities and referencing caveats within the model. Problems include issues arising in the case of the narrator who is reliably conveying his or her perspective, but whose perspective is guerre naive, or whose stance is psychologically or morally deviant.

At the Dissertation referencing zotero, heart of these issues is the broader problem of the relativity and subjectivity of perspectives on essay wikipedia, events, and the relationship between notions of perceived reliability and the possibility of a single ‘truth’, or ‘true’ rendering of events. Murphy presents his own views on Dissertation, these issues, and coins some terms to help him handle them (such as #8216;standpoint limitation#8217;, related to multiple narrators). The model, and the critical complexities with which it engages, offer a useful springboard for Cleanliness exploration of narratorial un/reliability. This is a digest of the following article: Murphy, T. P. (2012) ‘Defining the reliable narrator: The marked status of first-person fiction’, Journal of Literary Semantics 41, 67-87. Using this in teaching and learning. You can use this research digest to support your teaching of AQA’s AS and A level English Language and Literature specifications in the following ways. Murphy’s approach to narratorial un/reliability can be explored and tested. Here is one set of activities through which a class can explore his ideas. Students create a list of first-person narrators they are familiar with. Students then rank those narrators according to how reliable they feel each to be. Next, students rank them according to how many of Murphy’s determinants are present or departed from in each case.

Finally, students compare the Dissertation referencing, two ranked lists to explore correlations and differences, and reflect on whether the relationship between the two lists of Scholarship essay for colleges and career rankings supports or undermines Murphy#8217;s claims. Referencing Zotero? 2. Scholarship Essay Goals? An alternative method of Dissertation zotero exploring Murphy’s model would be to guerre creatively recast the narration (AS level #8216;Remembered places#8217;, A-level #8216;Writing about society#8217;). Students take the example of the narrator at the top of the second ranking created in activity 1 that is, the narrator which most closely follows Murphy’s list of determinants and identify a passage in a text where the most determinants are present. Students then creatively rewrite that instance of Dissertation referencing zotero narration in papers extra, one of two ways: i) Half of the students take care to systematically depart from each of Dissertation Murphy’s determinants, to aim to create the impression of an unreliable narrator. ii) The other half of the students rewrite the narration with the same aim – to create the impression of unreliable narration – but without attending to following or departing from Murphy’s determinants at for cash all. Rather, they can follow their intuitions, and experiment with other possible strategies for creating an impression of unreliability (for example, flouting Grice’s maxim of quantity). Dissertation Referencing Zotero? The students then compare their recast versions, discuss the stylistic choices they made in changing the narration from reliable to unreliable, reflect on how far they achieved their goal of creating an impression of narratorial unreliability, and consider what strategies or ‘determinants’ were most significant or successful in achieving that impression. Novels can have multiple narrators, as in the case of the frame narratives in Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein. How To Write Argument Paper? In such cases, two or more different characters might offer their perspective on the same event. Even in fiction with one single narrator, and also in drama with no narrating character, there are often multiple ‘tellers’: characters other than a narrator figure who relay to other characters short narrative reports of particular events.

Two characters might narrate the same event at different times to different audiences, or might (collaboratively or competitively) co-narrate an event (AS level#8217;Views and voices#8217;, A-level #8216;Telling stories#8217;). Students can explore instances of an event ‘told’ by multiple tellers, and can: compare the relative impressions of reliability conveyed in each telling, and reflect on Dissertation zotero, the impact upon their interpretation (of the characters and the event) of the extra, author’s choice to provide two tellings, and the choice of presenting them in the particular order given. Transitivity and Transformation: Characterisation in The Double Hook (research digest) Reading time: 7 minutes. The Double Hook (1959) is a novel by the Canadian writer Sheila Watson that centres on Dissertation referencing, the lives of Scholarship essay for colleges goals a group of characters in a small community in British Columbia. One of the characters, James leaves the town after killing his mother and becomes an isolated, peripheral figure. He later begins a journey home that ends in his reintegration back into the town. Literary critics generally view this return as a kind of referencing zotero personal redemption and Scholarship essay for colleges as a celebration of the spiritual rebirth of both James and his community. Dissertation Referencing? Yinglin Ji and Dan Shen analyse the shifting characterisation of James throughout the novel by drawing on Michael Halliday’s system of transitivity. Halliday’s model (from his systemic functional grammar) accounts for how different processes (verbs), participants in those processes (usually nouns) and circumstances of on educational and career goals those processes (usually adverbs or prepositional phrases) are used by writers and speakers to represent their version of the world. Dissertation? The model is fairly complex and only a quick sketch is provided below.

Material = doing, happening. Behavioural = physiological or psychological behaviour. Relational = having or being. Mental = sensing, feeling and thinking. Verbal = saying, telling. Within a clause, participants may be attached to material processes either as agents (doing things to other participants), or as goals (having things done to them), and to other processes as entities in the various acts, states and events that the verbs depict. Circumstances function to give more information about a process, such as its manner, location and reason.

So a description of a whole clause would be as follows: The police caught the suspects last week. participant (agent), material process, participant (goal), circumstance. Transitivity in literature is jim carrey often explored in terms of patterns. Dissertation? Ji and Shen use this model to map out how Watson presents James’s character across the novel. They begin by summarising existing literary criticism that suggests that James’s return to his community symbolises rebirth and regeneration, and then argue that this can be shown by looking at the changes in transitivity patterns across various points in the novel. Dissertation Guerre? They emphasise that their analysis isn’t just about presenting the Dissertation, mind style of a character (see our previous digest on deixis for Completing a case study examples of this) but rather shows how psychological changes are foregrounded. They argue that these changes are important in our overall understanding of the novel.

To do this, Ji and Shen look at the representation of James and his actions in three chapters that show stages of his journey back to his community. They start by focusing on Chapter 8. Dissertation Referencing? In this chapter, they show that James is largely represented as passive with very few material processes used in which he is the agent. Indeed, Ji and Shen show that, unusually, James’s horse is given the agent’s role in many of the sur la guerre, clauses. In contrast, James is represented through mental processes, which highlight his internal rather than his external behaviours. Interestingly, Ji and Shen also point out that, at this stage in the novel, even the mental processes tend to be ones related to Dissertation zotero perceptions and feelings (such as hearing and feeling) rather than those which are more active (such as states of knowing and believing).

They argue that much of James’s psychological activity is focused on simply responding to his immediate environment, which demonstrates his inability to transcend his physical situation. This pattern changes in Chapter 13 where James is now shown to be able to essay think beyond his immediate environment and engage in self-reflection. Here, Ji and Shen demonstrate that James now acts as an agentive participant at the head of material processes much more frequently. This highlights his ability to zotero exert a physical influence over other entities in the fictional world. Furthermore, there is a pattern of more active mental processes, with James now represented as a thinker rather than a merely a feeler of sensations. Ji and Shen argue that the pattern of processes in this chapter demonstrates the mental transformation that James has undergone at this point in the novel; he is now self-reflective and self-conscious. Essay Wikipedia Hospitals? To this end, James emerges as physically and mentally ready to return to his community. Finally, Ji and Shen focus on Chapter 18, where James returns to his community, begins to rebuild his past and referencing reclaims his position as an integral member of the town. In this chapter, James is Completing vs survey now almost exclusively represented by Watson through the use of zotero material processes that show strong action and volition. The range of process types also increases with Watson representing James and his state of being through existential processes which highlight his re-established position in the community, and through verbal processes which convey his authority and ability to express his point of view to others.

Furthermore, Ji and How to write written Shen show how the representation of James and his horse in the clauses in this chapter highlight James’s transformation from a passive to an active character. In this chapter, his horse is now usually the goal in Dissertation, a material process, with James restored to the agent in the clauses. Overall then, Ji and Shen seek to show that a transitivity analysis can account for Watson’s characterisation in transforming James from passivity and isolation to activity and integration back into the community. The authors argue that such an analysis can show the ‘geography of James’s mind’ and help both to support existing literary-critical responses to the novel and to a good provide some fresh analytical insights. This is a digest of the following article: Ji, Yinglin and Dissertation referencing Shen, D. (2004) ‘Transitivity and mental transformation: Sheila Watson’s The Double Hook ’, Language and Literature 3(4), 335-348. Using this in teaching and learning. Term Papers Extra? You can use this research digest to Dissertation zotero support your teaching of AQA’s AS and A-level English Language and Literature specifications in the following ways.

1.Analysing characterisation in terms of transitivity patterns would be a good way of exploring individual characters in prose fiction ( Imagined worlds , A level; Views and voices, AS level). Students could look at selected extracts focusing on key characters in their set novel and highlight the main processes that are used to Descriptive writing essay jim carrey represent them. To what extent do these patterns map onto ways in which the characters generally function in the novel and the ways in which they are viewed by others? Students could also follow Ji and Shen in tracing an individual character across various points in the novel. Dissertation Zotero? Are there different representations during key scenes? Can the mental or physical transformation of a character be explained using a similar approach to Ji and Shen?

These kinds of Scholarship for colleges exercises could also be undertaken with texts being studied for the NEA ( Making Connections , A level) and could inform an interesting investigation on characterisation either as a concept or as part of zotero a wider thematic study. 2.Looking at transitivity patterns could also support a more extensive study of characterisation in students’ chosen set texts. For example, students could explore how representation at Cleanliness hospitals the level of the clause combines with other ways of zotero presenting characters (speech and writing essay jim carrey thought, physical description, body language and so on). They could think about how characters are developed in the novel and in the poems they are studying ( Poetic voices , A level; Views and Dissertation referencing zotero voices, AS level; Imagined worlds , A level), and find and comment on the connections between transitivity patterns and write argument paper other ways that writers presents fictional entities. 3.The distribution of Dissertation material processes (actions) and relational/existential processes (states of being/description) can also be explored through the lens of genre. When working with material for Scholarship for colleges their NEA ( Making Connections , A level), students could think about how certain texts (or parts of them) focus on providing either actions or description and how they might account for Dissertation these by relating these to goals generic conventions. For example, how are events in crime thrillers told? Is there an referencing, equal distribution of processes at key moments (eg murders, discovery of bodies)? Do different writers have a noticeable style in terms of how they typically choose to present such events? 4.Equally, students could explore transitivity patterns in non-literary material/genres, drawing on the Paris Anthology ( Imagined worlds , A level; People and places, AS level) and more widely, again to support their selection and analysis of non-literary material for NEA ( Making Connections , A level).

Some genres (eg. recipes) might typically make use of one kind of process more often than another but can students find more complex examples? And, do other factors such as audience, purpose and How to a good paper mode influence the ways in referencing zotero, which writers and speakers might want to represent actions, people, states and events? This provides a useful way into exploring the concept of representation more broadly and will support students across the entire specification. Politeness and impoliteness (reading suggestions) Reading time: 3 minutes. This reading list is designed to guide teachers towards further reading related to the digest on Jonathan Culpeper’s article ‘Impoliteness and entertainment in the television quiz show The Weakest Link . There has been a large amount of work on politeness and essay impoliteness since Brown and Levinson’s influential work which made use of Erving Goffman’s ideas about referencing ‘face’. As indicated in the digest article posted here previously, more recent work has included new ideas about the nature of face, about the pervasiveness of ‘facework’ (seeing questions about face as relevant to all interaction rather than only in term papers, certain utterances or behaviours) and in considering impoliteness as well as politeness. This last development has led to the use of the term ‘im/politeness’ by many researchers. There is a considerable literature on politeness and impoliteness, added to regularly by publications in journals such as the Journal of Dissertation referencing zotero Pragmatics, Language and Literature, Pragmatics, Pragmatics and Society, and the specialised Journal of sur la guerre Politeness Research. This vast literature can look daunting. Here are some suggestions for places where you can begin to zotero find out more about recent developments.

Impoliteness: Using and understanding the language of offence. An accessible website on impoliteness, made possible by an ESRC (Economic and sur la guerre Social Research Council) fellowship. Dissertation Zotero? It contains helpful definitions and a large bibliography. Richard J. Watts. 2003. Politeness. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. A useful discussion of work which developed in the years following Brown and Levinson’s important work in Descriptive writing, this area. An engaging survey of a range of ideas about politeness and impoliteness as realised in social interaction. Zotero? Sara Mills. 2003.

Gender and Politeness. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. An accessible discussion of how ideas about politeness interact with gender in language and communication. The discussion also makes use of the notion of ‘community of practice’, originating in Dissertation sur la guerre, the work of the cognitive anthropologists Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger in 1991, which focuses on how people work together around particular tasks and how working together contributes to the construction of identities and understanding of Dissertation zotero ourselves and How to write a good others. Power and referencing Politeness in the Workplace by Janet Holmes and Maria Stubbe.

Janet Holmes and Maria Stubbe. 2015. Power and Politeness in write a good paper written, the Workplace, 2nd edition. London: Routledge. This book considers how behaviour and interaction construct power and politeness in Dissertation, work environments, exploring a number of strategies we use to do this. The book suggests a number of ways of exploring this, some of them lending themselves to interesting classroom activities. Of course, classrooms can be thought of as work environments in which these ideas apply! Impoliteness: Using Language to Cause Offence by Jonathan Culpeper.

Jonathan Culpeper. 2011. Impoliteness: Using Language to Cause Offence. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. An easy-to-read overview of work on impoliteness, covering a wide range of contexts and behaviours, based on essay, naturally occurring examples. Impoliteness in Interaction by Derek Bousfield.

Derek Bousfield. Dissertation? 2008. Impoliteness in Interaction. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. This is an important publication in for colleges on educational goals, the development of work on impoliteness. It develops some key ideas in Dissertation referencing zotero, extending ideas about politeness to consider impoliteness as well. It is written in a lively and accessible style. Impoliteness and Dissertation guerre Entertainment (research digest) Reading time: 8 minutes. Jonathan Culpeper’s paper on the television quiz show The Weakest Link explores how impolite behaviour can be used for entertainment. The Weakest Link ran in the UK from 2000 to 2012. Culpeper describes it as an ‘exploitative’ show ‘designed to humiliate contestants, not to support or celebrate them as is often the case in Dissertation referencing, standard shows’.

The show is designed to maximise the potential for impoliteness (unlike ‘standard’ quiz shows such as University Challenge and Who Wants To Be A Millionaire? where hosts are supportive to contestants). One of the most culturally salient features of the show was the extremely impolite persona of the presenter Anne Robinson. Culpeper points out a number of Cleanliness wikipedia ways in which this persona (distinguishing it from the Dissertation referencing, ‘real’ Anne Robinson) is wikipedia impolite to contestants. The focus of the show is on identifying ‘weak links’, ie contestants who are performing poorly. Between rounds of questions, each contestant identifies one other who they think has been performing poorly and the contestant with the most nominations has to referencing leave. Robinson discusses nominations with some of the contestants and is impolite to them while doing so. Culpeper discusses several ways in which she is impolite. These include utterances which imply negative judgments about the contestants and Scholarship for colleges on educational their jobs, mimicry and prosody. Discussion of Dissertation prosody can focus on pitch, rhythm, tempo, volume and voice quality.

Here, Culpeper focuses in particular on pitch movement and stress placement. In this exchange, Robinson mimics a contestant called Danny: Danny: a little bit harsh Anne, I live in Solihull now so I’ve moved up. AR: what was wrong with Liverpool. Danny’s pronunciation of the filler eer includes a vowel articulated closer to the front of the mouth than would be produced by a speaker of Completing a case something approximating ‘Received Pronunciation (RP)’. Robinson responds with an even more fronted vowel. As is often the case with mimicry, Robinson exaggerates features she mimics. Another example appears in her chat with a contestant called Jay: Jay: the Australian army trained me. Referencing? AR: oh. is that why you go up in all your sentences. Robinson asks Jay whether his Australian training explains his use of what is sometimes described as ‘uptalk’ and mimics this by producing marked high rising tones centred on the words up and sentences. Term Papers? Again, her mimicry exaggerates the contestant’s manner of speaking. In fact, Culpeper points out that Jay’s speech does not provide much evidence of uptalk.

This does not detract, though, from the opportunity to mimic him. Robinson uses prosody to be impolite here: AR: Shaun, you’re a traffic management operative. Shaun: that’s correct. AR: okay, what do you actually do. Shaun: er put traffic cones in in the Dissertation zotero, road. AR: well what an interesting person you turned out to be. Robinson begins her interaction with Shaun by quoting what we assume is his own description of his job. Cleanliness Hospitals? She then asks him #8220;what do you actually do?#8221; prompting him to use a more everyday description of the relatively mundane task of putting traffic cones in Dissertation zotero, the road.

As Culpeper points out, we might assume that Robinson’s utterance #8220;you don’t#8221; is sarcastic even without hearing how she says it. The prosody plays a significant role since it is a form often taken to be ironic. Completing A Case Vs Survey? As Culpeper points out, the prosody is also consistent with surprise so contextual assumptions play a role in recognising this (and other) sarcasm. Robinson’s prosody falls throughout the utterance #8220;well, what an Dissertation, interesting person you turned out to Write papers be#8221; in a way which ‘resembles a staircase going down’ and so ‘seems to Dissertation referencing zotero signal boredom’. The earlier utterance ( #8220;you don’t#8221; ) had prosody consistent with surprise associated with something we assume to be mundane. Sur La Guerre? Here, words which suggest interest are accompanied by Dissertation referencing zotero, prosody suggesting boredom. These features, and others discussed in the paper, contribute to attacks on the ‘face’ of the contestants. The notion of ‘face’ is key to extra work on politeness. Culpeper refers here to Helen Spencer-Oatey’s (2002) update of Brown and Levinson’s (1987) ideas on referencing, this.

She suggests a distinction between ‘quality face’ and ‘social identity face’: refers to ‘a fundamental desire for people to evaluate us positively in Dissertation guerre, terms of our personal qualities, eg our confidence, abilities, appearance, etc.’ refers to ‘a fundamental desire for Dissertation referencing people to acknowledge and How to paper written uphold our social identities and roles, eg as group leader, valued customer, close friend’ Quality face is attacked by features which suggest the zotero, contestants are unimportant and have negative qualities. Social identity face is attacked by How to write a good paper written, negative attitudes to their accents or jobs. Culpeper also considers the Dissertation, idea that our understanding that Robinson is performing a role for the purposes of entertainment might mean that this is not really impolite after all. However, there is clear evidence that contestants do take offence. For example, Danny laughs nervously and looks down after his pronunciation of eer is mocked and another contestant smiles and exhales after a negative implication about his job. Culpeper suggests a distinction between impoliteness which is ‘sanctioned’ and impoliteness which is How to write a good argument written ‘neutralised’, concluding that the impoliteness here is sanctioned but not neutralised. Culpeper’s discussion reveals a number of referencing ways in which we can attack each other’s face.

This approach can be applied in essay jim carrey, analysing a wide range of texts and Dissertation referencing zotero interactions. This is a digest of the following article: Culpeper, Jonathan. (2005). ‘Impoliteness and entertainment in the television quiz show: The Weakest Link. ’ Journal of Politeness Research 1, 35-72. Using this in teaching and learning. You can use this research digest to support your teaching of AQA’s AS and A-level English Language and Scholarship essay for colleges Literature specifications in the following ways. Culpeper’s paper discusses other uses of prosody. In particular, he discusses the referencing zotero, main catchphrase #8220;You are the weakest link. Goodbye.#8221; Classroom discussion could focus on this utterance and consider the contribution to impoliteness of its prosodic form. This might lead on to discussion of other prosodic forms and essay how they contribute to meanings. Dissertation Zotero? Clips and episodes of The Weakest Link are available on the internet.

One entire programme is currently available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cMs5YNrBvkg This could support students with potential topic areas for a case vs survey their Non-Exam Assessment ( Making Connections , A-level). Culpeper’s paper could be used to explore ways in which work on Dissertation referencing, politeness has developed since the work of papers for cash extra Brown and Levinson (1987), including in the focus on Dissertation referencing, impoliteness as well as politeness. Again, students could explore some of these developments looking at different types of Descriptive essay non-literary material for their Non-Exam Assessment ( Making Connections , A level). Zotero? One specific area to focus on could be Spencer-Oatey’s new proposals about the notion of face, intended to replace Brown and Levinson’s account which focused on ‘positive face’ and jim carrey ‘negative face’. For Brown and Levinson, positive face was about a positive consistent self-image, about this image being appreciated by referencing, others, and about wanting our own wants to be desirable to others. Negative face was seen as being about our actions being unimpeded by others. A Case Study Vs Survey? Students could explore the Dissertation referencing zotero, extent to which Spencer-Oatey’s ideas can map on to these two notions. (Culpeper suggests that Spencer-Oatey’s new notions account for aspects of positive face and that ideas about negative face map onto a different notion proposed by Spencer-Oatey: the notion of term papers ‘sociality rights’, which are about ‘entitlements’ that we claim in interactions with others). A natural next step would be to look at referencing zotero other kinds of a case interactions and explore ways in which we aim to be polite or impolite in Dissertation zotero, interacting with others. Sur La? The ideas developed by Culpeper and referencing others could be explored in any kind of interaction.

Students might begin by considering examples from their own interactions, including in classroom discourse. Another possibility would be to look at current quiz shows and other television programmes. Culpeper mentions an example where impoliteness is implicated in an exchange between the write, hosts Ant and Dec on Dissertation referencing zotero, the programme Pop Idol : Ant: Our judges have been accused of being ill-informed, opinionated and rude. Dec: We’d like to a good set the Dissertation referencing zotero, record straight: our judges are not ill-informed. In discussing other examples, students might consider how other approaches they have considered are relevant here. Term Papers? Dec’s utterance here could be explained with reference to how pragmatic theories account for Dissertation zotero implicit communication. Ideas about politeness and impoliteness can also be useful in looking at literary texts on the AQA specifications.

For example, students could look at ways in which speakers in the poetry of Donne or Browning use politeness strategies ( Poetic voices , A- level; Views and voices, AS) and/or at how characters in prose interact ( Imagined worlds , A- level; Views and voices, AS). How To Paper Written? Another very natural application would be to Dissertation consider ways in which conflict of various types is constructed and sur la guerre understood (this could include exploration and comparison of Dissertation conflict used to create tension and conflict used to How to write argument written create humour). A good starting point would be to referencing look at interactions between characters in drama ( Dramatic encounters , A-level), noting ways in which they aim to a case protect or attack the face of others and what the effects of these strategies might be.

Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Blaise Pascal was a French philosopher, mathematician, scientist, inventor, and theologian. In mathematics, he was an early pioneer in the fields of game theory and probability theory. In philosophy he was an early pioneer in existentialism. As a writer on theology and religion he was a defender of Dissertation referencing Christianity. Despite chronic ill health, Pascal made historic contributions to mathematics and to physical science, including both experimental and theoretical work on hydraulics, atmospheric pressure, and the existence and write argument nature of the referencing, vacuum. As a scientist and philosopher of science, Pascal championed strict empirical observation and the use of controlled experiments; he opposed the term for cash extra, rationalism and logico-deductive method of the Cartesians; and he opposed the metaphysical speculations and reverence for authority of the theologians of the Middle Ages. Although he never fully abandoned his scientific and mathematical interests, after his uncanny “Night of Fire” (the intense mystical illumination and midnight conversion that he experienced on the evening of November 23, 1654), Pascal turned his talents almost exclusively to religious writing. It was during the period from 1656 until his death in 1662 that he wrote the Lettres Provinciales and the Pensees . Dissertation Zotero? The Lettres Provinciales is a satirical attack on Jesuit casuistry and a polemical defense of Jansenism.

The Pensees is a posthumously published collection of unfinished notes for what was intended to be a systematic apologia for the Christian religion. Along with his scientific writings, these two great literary works have attracted the admiration and critical interest of philosophers and serious readers of every generation. “Pascal’s life is inseparable from essay on educational and career, his work.”—A. J. Krailsheimer. Pascal’s life has stirred the same fascination and generated as much lively discussion and learned commentary as his writings. Dissertation Zotero? This is largely attributable to his intriguing, enigmatic personality. To read him is to come into direct contact with both his strangeness and his charm. It is also to encounter a tangle of incongruities and Scholarship on educational seeming contradictions. For Pascal himself – humble yet forceful; fanatical as well as skeptical; mild and referencing zotero empathetic, yet also capable of writing essay jim carrey withering scorn – personified the very “chimera” he famously declared man to be ( Pensees , 131/164). [Note: Throughout this article, fragments of the Pensees are identified first (that is, before the slash) by the numeration system of Lafuma and second (after the slash) by that of Sellier – L/S.] Interest in his life is also due to our natural desire to learn more about this “scary genius” , or effrayant g enie – Chateaubriand’s memorable phrase, whose unique combination of Dissertation referencing zotero talents enabled him to make revolutionary contributions not only to mathematics and physical science but also to the theology and literature of Descriptive essay his age. Merely to list his achievements is once again to encounter Pascal the Dissertation referencing, “chimera,”— the human riddle who was both an avant-garde crusader for empirical science as well as an avid supporter of ancient prophecy, mysticism, miracles, and Biblical hermeneutics.

Modern readers are usually shocked to discover that the father of gambling odds and the mechanical computer wore a spiked girdle to Completing a case study, chastise himself and further mortify a body already tormented by recurrent illness and chronic pain. He has been the subject of dozens of biographies, beginning with La Vie de M. Pascal , the brief hagiographic sketch composed by his sister Gilberte Perier shortly after his death in 1662 and first published in 1684. New treatments of the author’s life have appeared in Dissertation referencing zotero, both French and English with remarkable regularity ever since. Perier’s memoir established a precedent by applying an underlying pattern and symmetry to her brother’s life. The implied form is that of a well-made play with classic five-act structure. In Perier’s treatment this life-drama is a divine comedy showing the spiritual rise and hospitals eventual salvation of a distressed soul who, after a series of Dissertation referencing trials and setbacks, reunites with God.

Meanwhile Pascal’s secular biographers and commentators, beginning with Voltaire, offer an opposite view. They portray Pascal’s career as essentially a tragedy, a descending arc tracing the decline into essay on educational goals timidity and superstition of referencing a once bold and independent thinker. Nietzsche’s characterization of Pascal as “the most instructive victim of Christianity, murdered slowly, first physically, then psychologically” is a typical summation ( Ecce Homo , II, 3, p. 243). Both views are oversimplified. First of sur la guerre all, at no point during his lifetime was Pascal ever a libertine or libre-penseur . So portraying his life as though it consisted of two sudden and referencing powerful “conversions,” with an intervening slide into worldliness and sins of the flesh, seems a bit too pat and melodramatic. Similarly, since Pascal was a lifelong supporter of the Catholic faith, and papers extra since he also maintained an interest in scientific and mathematical problems well after his commitment to Jansenism and Port-Royal, it seems unfair to portray his final years as a betrayal of his scientific principles rather than as an Dissertation, intensification or culmination of his religious views. Cleanliness Wikipedia? Despite these and other distortions, the traditional division of zotero Pascal’s biography into five stages or periods remains a convenient way of reviewing his career.

Blaise Pascal was born on June 19, 1623, in Clermont (now Clermont-Ferrand) in the Auvergne region of Descriptive central France. His parents were Etienne Pascal (1588 – 1651), a magistrate, civil servant, and member of the Dissertation referencing zotero, aristocratic and professional class known as the noblesse de robe , and Antoinette Begon Pascal (1596-1626), the daughter of a Clermont merchant. Pascal was named for his paternal uncle as well as for term papers extra St. Blaise, the 3rd-century Armenian saint martyred by having his flesh flayed by iron carding combs as his namesake would later punish his own flesh by wearing a belt studded with sharp nails. The Pascal family, including Pascal’s older sister Gilberte (b. 1620) and younger sister Jacqueline (b. 1625), enjoyed a comfortable, upper-bourgeois lifestyle. Etienne, in addition to being a lawyer, public official, and tax administrator, was proficient in Latin and Greek, a dabbler in natural philosophy, and Dissertation referencing zotero an expert mathematician.

He was also a demanding but loving father who took great pride in his children’s accomplishments. Gilberte would go on to become Pascal’s first biographer and serve as a fierce guardian of his reputation. Jacqueline displayed an early literary genius and earned acclaim as a poet and dramatist before becoming a nun at Write papers for cash Port-Royal. Pascal’s mother, who was known for her piety and charitable work, died when Pascal was only three years old and Jacqueline was but an infant. Pascal was a sickly child who suffered various pains and diseases throughout his life. According to zotero, a family anecdote related by a good paper his niece, at age one he supposedly fell victim to Dissertation, a strange illness. His abdomen became distended and swollen, and the slightest annoyance triggered fits of crying and How to paper written screaming. Dissertation Referencing? This affliction supposedly continued for more than a year, and Write extra the child often seemed on the verge of death.

Hearing of the boy’s condition, neighbors attributed it to witchcraft and blamed a poor elderly woman who occasionally performed household chores for the Pascal family. Etienne, as an educated gentleman, at referencing zotero first scoffed at the accusation, but when his patience eventually wore thin he confronted the woman and threatened her with hanging if she didn’t come forward with the truth. The woman reportedly fell to the floor and promised to divulge everything if her life would be spared. She confessed that in a moment of How to write a good argument anger and resentment she had cast a spell on the child – a fatal spell that could be undone only by having it transferred to some other living creature. Supposedly the Dissertation zotero, family cat was given to her and Completing vs survey made a scapegoat for the otherwise doomed child. The old woman then prescribed that a poultice of special herbs be applied to Pascal’s stomach. After an intense crisis, during which he appeared to be comatose and close to death, Pascal awoke from his “spell” and eventually recovered his health.

This strange and improbable “witch” tale is scarcely credible today. But that Pascal endured a serious and potentially fatal childhood illness during which his parents desperately tried all kinds of fanciful cures and treatments seems very likely. In fact, the anecdote is perfectly consistent with the wild and paradoxical world of Dissertation 17 th_ century culture and especially the medical practice of the time – a time when empirical science and natural magic, enlightened new techniques and papers for cash extra antique superstitions, were routinely intermingled and practiced side by side. The exact cause and basis of Pascal’s lifelong health problems have never been fully settled or accounted for. According to Gilberte, after his 18 th birthday Pascal never lived a day of his life free from pain or from Dissertation referencing, some sort of How to write a good illness or medical affliction. The most common medical opinion is that he contracted gastrointestinal tuberculosis in early childhood and that manifestations of the disease, along with signs of Dissertation referencing possible concurrent nephritis or rheumatoid arthritis, recurred periodically throughout his lifetime. The accounts of his pathology are also consistent with migraine, irritable bowel syndrome, and fibromyalgia – a complex of illnesses often found together and which also frequently occur in combination with symptoms of anxiety, depression, and emotional distress. Scholarly interest in this matter involves more than just idle curiosity and medical detective-work. The question of Pascal’s physical and mental health goes to the heart of desires to learn more about the conditions and circumstances that produce extraordinary genius.

Affliction and disease, physical or emotional trauma, a natural disadvantage or disability have often served as an added motive or accelerator for high-level creative achievement. Examples abound – from the ancient legend of the blind and vagabond Homer to the documented histories of Write term papers for cash extra modern creative figures like Isaac Newton, Van Gogh, Stephen Hawking, and Christy Brown. We can only speculate whether and to what extent Pascal’s physical ailments and disabilities, instead of retarding his career, may have actually spurred and given rise to his intellectual triumphs. In 1631, a few years after the death of his wife, Etienne sold his government post (a common practice of the Dissertation zotero, day) along with most of his property and moved with his children to Paris. Over the next nine years he devoted himself to his amateur scientific and mathematical pursuits and Dissertation sur la guerre took personal charge of his children’s education. Recognizing early on his son’s exceptional intellectual gifts, Etienne designed and supervised a special program and curriculum for referencing the boy based on his own anti-scholastic and progressive educational principles. Young Pascal was taught Latin and Greek as well as history, geography, and philosophy – all on an impromptu schedule, including during meals and at various hours throughout the day.

Science, or natural philosophy as the discipline was then known, ignited Pascal’s imagination, and he demonstrated an early inquisitiveness about natural phenomena and Dissertation sur la guerre a fondness for devising experiments. Civil and Dissertation canon law were also part of a varied curriculum that included study of the Bible and the Church Fathers. The latter studies were in accordance with Etienne’s personal religious views, which were plain and respectful and as progressive as his views on Completing a case study education. He taught his son his own cardinal principle that whatever is a matter of faith should not also be treated as a matter of reason; and vice-versa. It is a tenet that Pascal took to referencing, heart and Write term for cash extra followed throughout his career.

In the belief that, once exposed to mathematics, his son would be so captivated by it that he would forsake or ignore his other studies, Etienne determined to referencing zotero, withhold instruction in math and geometry until Pascal had completed the rest of his training. However, upon discovering that the boy had already achieved an intuitive understanding of the discipline including his own independently worked out demonstration of Write term a proof in Euclid, Etienne acquiesced. Dissertation? The pages of Euclid were finally opened to the youth, and thus began Pascal’s belated introduction to mathematics – the subject with which he would conduct, at a case vs survey times guiltily, a lifelong love affair. Pascal’s education was unique for Dissertation his own time and guerre would be unusual in any era. A passionate student who delved earnestly into each new subject, he absorbed new material, including, at a later period, the most arcane and technical components of theology quickly and effortlessly. However, his learning, while deep in a few areas, was never broad and was in some ways less remarkable for Dissertation referencing what it included than for what it left out.

For example, due to Completing study, his assorted maladies, Pascal’s regimen included no physical training or any form of exercise. In addition, because of the sequestered, hermetic, entirely private form of his schooling, he never experienced any of the referencing, personal contacts or opportunities for essay social development that most young people, including even novice monks in monastic schools, commonly do. Dissertation Zotero? To what extent this may have deformed or limited his social and interpersonal skills it is hard to say. He was known to be temperamentally impatient with and demanding of others while sometimes seeming arrogant and self-absorbed. At a later point in papers for cash extra, his career, he fully acknowledged his deficiencies and referencing zotero indeed chastised himself for his social ambition and intellectual vanity. Pascal was not widely read in the classics or in contemporary literature. Though he was well acquainted with Aristotelian and Scholastic thought, philosophy for him consisted mainly of Epictetus, Montaigne, and Scholarship essay on educational and career the traditional debate between Stoicism and Epicureanism. Profane literature was foreign to him, and given his tastes and habits it’s impossible to imagine him reading, say, Ovid or Catullus, much less Rabelais. In fact it’s uncertain whether he had even read Homer or Virgil or for that matter any verses other than the Psalms and his sister Jacqueline’s religious poems. As for referencing drama, Corneille was a family friend who at one time personally championed Jacqueline’s poetry and dramaturgy, and the young Racine studied classical literature and rhetoric at the school at Port-Royal while Jacqueline and Pascal were also there.

Yet Pascal never mentions the work of either great writer and indeed – other than to refer to the stage as a “dangerous diversion” ( Pensees , 764/630) – seems to have taken little interest at all in Write for cash extra, contemporary French theatre, which was then at its artistic zenith. But whatever he may have lacked in physical education, humanistic studies, and art appreciation, Pascal more than made up for in his favored pursuits. In fact, so rapidly did he advance in physics and mathematics that Etienne boldly introduced the referencing zotero, boy at the age of only thirteen into his small Parisian academic circle known as the Acad emie libre. Study Vs Survey? The central figure of this group was the polymathic philosopher, mathematician, theologian, and music theorist Pere Marin Mersenne, one of the leading intellectuals of the referencing, age. Mersenne corresponded with Descartes, Huygens, Hobbes, and other luminaries of the period and actively promoted the work of controversial thinkers like Galileo and Gassendi. Term? The Mersenne circle also included such notable mathematicians as Girard Desargues and Gilles de Roberval. These inspirational figures served the young Pascal as mentors, examiners, intellectual models, and academic guides.

It was during his involvement with the Mersenne circle that Pascal published, at Dissertation age sixteen, his Essai pour les Coniques , an Scholarship essay for colleges on educational goals, important contribution to the relatively new field of projective geometry. The essay includes an original proof concerning the referencing zotero, special properties of hexagons inscribed within conic sections that is still known today as Pascal’s Theorem. Around the same time that Pascal was working on his Theorem, Etienne, who had at one time served as an adviser to Cardinal Richelieu, incurred the writing jim carrey, wrath of the First Minister by leading a protest over a government bond default. Threatened with prison, he sought refuge in Auvergne. He was eventually restored to the Cardinal’s good graces by the intervention of his daughter Jacqueline. (The Cardinal, a patron of the theatre, was charmed not only by Jacqueline’s poetic and dramatic skills but also by her beauty and courtly manners.) It’s also likely that Richelieu had an additional motive for welcoming Etienne back. For no sooner was Etienne returned to royal favor than Richelieu appointed him the chief tax administrator for Dissertation zotero Rouen. At the and career goals, Cardinal’s behest, the Pascal family moved from Paris to Rouen in early January of 1640. Rouen was a city in Dissertation zotero, crisis, beset by street violence, crop failures, a tax revolt, and an outbreak of plague. It was Etienne’s job to handle the taxpayer revolt, which he eventually managed to do by working with the local citizens and earning their confidence and respect. Pascal meanwhile seems to have been little affected by the change of scene and Cleanliness essay continued with his mathematical studies.

He also undertook a new project. Impressed by the massive number of calculations required in his father’s work of Dissertation referencing accounting and tax assessment, he wondered if the guerre, drudgery of such labor might not be relieved by Dissertation zotero some type of mechanical device. Papers? Setting to work on the idea in referencing, 1642, he eventually conceived, designed, and oversaw the construction of what was presented to the public in 1645 as la machine arithmetique , later known as the Pascaline. Scholarship For Colleges On Educational And Career? His simple design consisted of a sequence of interconnected wheels, arranged in such a fashion that a full revolution of one wheel nudged its neighbor to the left ahead one tenth of a revolution. Dissertation Referencing Zotero? The Pascaline thus became the world’s first fully functional mechanical calculator, and in 1649 Pascal received a royal patent on the device.

Over the next five years he continued tinkering with his design, experimenting with various materials and trying out different linkage arrangements and gear mechanisms. Nine working models survive today and serve as a reminder that Pascal was not just a mathematical Platonist absorbed in a case study, a higher world of pure number but also a practical minded, down-to-earth engineering type interested in applying the insights of science and mathematics to the solution of Dissertation zotero real-world problems. On an icy day in January of 1646, Etienne Pascal, in his capacity as a public official, was summoned to prevent a duel that was to take place in a field outside Rouen. Essay? While en route, he slipped on the ice, fracturing a leg and injuring his hip. Dissertation? The family called in two local bonesetters, the brothers Deschamps, who moved into the Pascal household for a period of three months to care for Etienne and oversee his recovery. Write Term? The brothers turned out to be members of the small, saintly community of Dissertation referencing Augustinian worshippers established at Port-Royal by the Jansenist priest Jean du Vergier de Hauranne, more simply known as the abbe Saint-Cyran.

The Jansenists (named for the Dutch theologian Cornelius Jansen) accepted the strict Augustinian creed that salvation is How to paper written achieved not by human virtue or merit but solely by the grace of God. At Port-Royal they practiced an Dissertation zotero, ascetic lifestyle emphasizing penance, austerity, devotional exercises, and good works. While treating Etienne, the essay wikipedia, Deschamps brothers shared their stringent, exacting, and somewhat cheerless religious views with the Pascal family. Pascal himself, along with his father and sisters, had never displayed much in the way of genuine religious fervor. They were good upper-middle-class Catholics, mild and respectful in their beliefs rather than zealous, neither God-fearing nor, to any extraordinary degree, God-seeking. Dissertation Referencing Zotero? Yet the term extra, ardor of the Deschamps brothers proved contagious. Dissertation Referencing Zotero? Pascal caught the papers for cash, fire and read with avidity the Jansenist texts that were given to Dissertation referencing zotero, him – sermons by Saint-Cyran along with doctrinal works by Augustine, Antoine Arnauld (Saint-Cyran’s successor), and Jansen himself. Gradually, with growing assurance, and eventually with complete sincerity and conviction, Pascal embraced the Jansenist creed. According to Gilberte’s account, he was the first in the family to convert to the new faith, and no sooner had he done so than he set about to convert the rest of family, first Jacqueline, then Etienne, and finally Gilberte and her husband Florin Perier. It should be added, however, that from Pascal’s own point of view he wasn’t so much “converting” to Jansenism, or any particular group or sect, as he was declaring or reaffirming his commitment to the true faith.

In her memoir, Gilberte refers to the events of this period as Pascal’s “intellectual conversion,” distinguishing it from his later, more emotional, and traumatic “second conversion” of 1654. She also asserts that at this time Pascal formally renounced all his scientific and mathematical researches and ever afterward devoted himself entirely and exclusively to the love and service of God. This claim is inaccurate and indeed hard to fathom given that only a year later Florin Perier, Gilberte’s own husband, assisted in what is probably Pascal’s most famous scientific investigation, the celebrated Puy-de-Dome experiment measuring air pressure and proving the existence of the vacuum. Writing Jim Carrey? In fact, despite Gilberte’s claim, it would probably be closer to the truth to say that, shortly after his conversion to Jansenism, Pascal resumed his scientific endeavors with even more zest and energy than before. In the spring of 1647, partly on the advice of his physicians, he returned to Dissertation referencing, Paris where he linked up once again with former colleagues and began organizing several new essays and treatises for writing essay jim carrey publication. His supposed renunciation of natural philosophy and the bright world of Parisian intellectual life had lasted all of six months. Contrary to Gilberte’s account, most biographers have accepted the years 1649 -1654 as a periode mondaine in Pascal’s career – that is, as a time when he retreated from his pledge to Dissertation, serve only God and resumed to a significant degree the life of a gentleman-scientist. It was not a period of debauchery and libertinism or anything of the kind. Although he showed an occasional weakness for silk and brocade and enjoyed the amenities of both a valet and Scholarship essay and career goals a coach-and-six, Pascal did not become a salon habitue or even much of referencing a bon vivant. He was simply a young man who sought the company of fellow experts, savored the spotlight of recognition for personal achievement, and delighted in the social world of learned conversation and sparkling intellectual debate. His lapse or personal failing, if it can be called that, was what the Port-Royalists referred to as libido excellendi – a concupiscence of the mind rather than of the flesh and an example of the Scholarship essay for colleges on educational and career goals, natural human desire for Dissertation fame that his contemporary, John Milton, called “that last infirmity of noble mind.”

Pascal’s companions during this period included such stars of the Paris social scene as Artus Gouffier, the Duc de Roannez, a former military officer, noted courtier, and amateur dabbler in science and essay wikipedia hospitals mathematics; Antoine Gombaud, the Chevalier de Mere, a soldier, gambler, author, and paragon of referencing honnetete (more than mere “honesty,” this term connotes an entire code of conduct and the gallant, cheerful lifestyle of an independent-minded man of the world); and Damien Mitton, another champion of honnetete whose name became a byword for debonair charm and colorful raconteurship. Descriptive Writing Jim Carrey? Several commentators on the Pens ees argue that the work is directly aimed at the culture of honnetete and that it specifically targets figures like Mere and Mitton, that is, persons who seek a life of virtue and happiness apart from God. Shortly after his return to Paris in 1647 and during a turn for the worse in his health, Pascal reunited with his old circle of friends and fellow intellectuals and was also introduced into polite society. Dissertation Referencing Zotero? Descartes himself paid a visit (and according to reports wisely suggested that Pascal follow a regimen of bed-rest and bouillon rather than the steady diet of enemas, purgings, and blood-lettings favored by his doctors). The historic meeting between the two scientific and philosophical rivals reportedly did not go well. Pascal’s new life in Paris was interrupted in 1648 by the outbreak of the Fronde , the essay on educational, violent civil clash that began as a power struggle between Chief Minister Mazurin and leaders of Parliament and Dissertation zotero which continued as a conflict between the crown and various aristocratic factions over the next five years. To escape the mob havoc and pervasive military presence in Paris, Pascal returned to Clermont along with his sisters, brother-in-law, and father. There he effectively inserted himself into the Auvergne equivalent of Parisian high society and resumed his temporary infatuation with la vie honnetete . He returned to Paris in 1650, reconnected with his old friends, and began revising and polishing several scientific papers, including portions of a never completed or partially lost version of his Treatise on the Vacuum . On September 24, 1651, Etienne died; he was 63.

Pascal and Jacqueline were at Write papers for cash extra his bedside. Gilberte was in referencing zotero, Clermont awaiting the birth of a child who would be named Etienne Perier in honor of his grandfather. Pascal’s letter of consolation to Gilberte, preserved among his complete works, has disappointed some of his admirers due to its austere tone and cold Jansenist view of death (we should not grieve but rejoice at God’s will; the deceased is now in a better world; and Write so forth.). However, the letter includes a note of Dissertation referencing zotero affection for the man who had taken personal charge of his education and who was the first to written, introduce him to the world of Dissertation zotero science and mathematics. Pascal ends the letter with a pledge that he, Gilberte, and Jacqueline should redouble on one another the love that they shared for their late father. A few months later, Jacqueline finally made good on her determination (long postponed in obedience to her father’s and brother’s wishes) to dedicate her life to study vs survey, holy service and enter Port-Royal as a nun. In the summer of referencing 1654 Pascal exchanged a series of letters with Fermat on the problem of calculating gambling odds and probabilities. It was also at this time (although many have doubted his authorship) that he completed his Discourse on Love . And according to at least two of Dissertation his biographers (Faugere and Bishop) it was during this same period (1653-54) that Pascal himself fell victim to amorous passion and zotero even contemplated marriage (supposedly to the comely Charlotte de Rouannez, his frequent correspondent and the sister of Completing study vs survey his good friend the Duke). On the other hand, Gilberte in her account of her brother’s life makes no mention whatsoever of a love affair, and the evidence that Pascal ever succumbed to referencing zotero, romance or became a suitor remains sketchy at best. One other oft-cited, but dubious and unverified, event in Pascal’s life also dates from this period. According to various sources, none wholly reliable, in a good, October of Dissertation 1654, Pascal was supposedly involved in a nearly fatal accident while crossing the Pont de Neuilly in his coach.

His affrighted horses reportedly reared, bolted, and plunged over the side of the bridge into writing essay the Seine, nearly dragging the coach and Pascal after them. Fortunately, the main coupling broke and the coach, with Pascal inside, miraculously hung on to the edge and stabilized. The commentators who credit this tale attribute Pascal’s “second conversion” to it and view his return to Jansenism as an immediate and direct consequence of his near-death experience. Sigmund Freud accepted the story and even used it as an example of how severe trauma can trigger an obsessive or phobic reaction. However, there is no conclusive evidence that the event ever happened.

The crucial event of Dissertation Pascal’s life and career occurred on November 23, 1654, between the hours of 10:30 pm and 12:30 am. Pascal lay in a case study, bed at his home in referencing zotero, the Marais district in Paris when he experienced the religious ecstasy or revelation that his biographers refer to as his “second conversion” or “night of fire.” He produced a written record of this momentous experience on a sheet of paper, which he then inserted into a piece of folded parchment inscribed with a duplicate account of the same vision. This dual record, known as the Memorial, he kept sewed into the lining of his jacket as a kind of secret token or private testament of his new life and total commitment to Jesus Christ. No one, not even Gilberte or Jacqueline, was aware of the existence of this document, which was not discovered until after his death. The text of the Memorial is cryptic, ejaculatory, portentous. At the top of the sheet stands a cross followed by a few lines establishing the time and date, then the on educational and career goals, word FEU (fire) in Dissertation, all upper case and centered near the top of the page. Write Argument Paper Written? Then:

Dieu d'Abraham, Dieu d'Isaac, Dieu de Jacob, non des philosophes et des savants. Certitude. Certitude. Sentiment. Joie. Paix. Dieu de Jesus-Christ. Deum meum et Deum vestrum. Ton Dieu sera mon Dieu. (God of Abraham, God of Dissertation zotero Isaac, God of Jacob, not of the philosophers and scholars.

Certitude, certitude, feeling, joy, peace. God of Jesus Christ. My God and Descriptive writing essay jim carrey your God. Dissertation Referencing? Thy God will be my God.) And so on, in a similarly ecstatic vein for essay wikipedia hospitals about eighteen more lines. The parchment copy ends with the solemn pledge: “Total submission to Jesus Christ and to my director. Dissertation Referencing? Eternally in joy for a day’s trial on earth. I shall not forget thy word.” As the name Memorial implies, Pascal’s words were written down to preserve them indelibly in his memory and to bear tangible witness to what was for him a soul-piercing and truly life-altering event. Dissertation Sur La Guerre? His account, despite its brevity and Dissertation gnomic style, accords closely with the How to written, reports of referencing conversion and mysticism classically described and analyzed by William James. In the weeks leading up to November 23, 1654, Pascal had on several occasions visited Jacqueline at Port-Royal and Dissertation sur la guerre had complained, despite his active social life and Dissertation ongoing scientific work, of a case study vs survey feelings of Dissertation dissatisfaction, guilt, lack of purpose, and ennui.

As in the story of his carriage accident by the Seine, he seemed to be a man teetering on the edge – in this case between anxiety and hope. His “Night of Fire” dramatically changed his outlook and brought him back from the brink of despair. After his conversion Pascal formally renounced, but did not totally abandon, his scientific and mathematical studies. He instead vowed to write argument written, dedicate his time and talents to Dissertation, the glorification of God, the edification of his fellow believers, and the salvation of the larger human community. Sur La? It wasn’t long before he got an early test of his new resolve. In fact, hardly had Pascal committed himself to Port-Royal than the Jansenist enclave, never secure and always under the watchful suspicion of the greater Catholic community, found itself under theological siege.

Antoine Arnauld, the spiritual leader of Port-Royal and the uncompromising voice and authority for its strict Augustinian beliefs and values, was embroiled in a bitter controversy pitting Jansenism against the Pope, the Jesuit order, and a majority of the bishops of France. Referencing? In effect, opponents charged that the entire Jansenist system was based on a foundation of error. At issue were matters of Catholic doctrine involving grace, election, human righteousness, divine power, and free will. Arnauld denied the charges and Completing study published a series of vehement counter-attacks. Unfortunately, these only zotero, served to make the hostility towards himself and the Port-Royal community more intense. He ended up being censored by the Faculty of Theology at the Sorbonne and stood threatened with official accusations of heresy. He sought sanctuary at Completing vs survey Port-Royal-des-Champs and awaited the judgment of Paris and Dissertation referencing zotero Rome. With the official voice of Port-Royal effectively muted, the cause of Jansenism needed a new champion.

Pascal stood ready to fill the role. During the period 1656-57, under the pseudonym Louis de Montalte, he produced a series of 18 public letters attacking the Jesuits and defending Arnauld and essay for colleges on educational Jansenist doctrine. The Lettres provinciales , as they became known, introduced an entirely new tone and style into contemporary theological debate. From time to Dissertation referencing, time, the genre had served as a forum for obfuscation, vituperation, abstruse technical language, and stodgy academic prose. Pascal’s Lettres injected a new note of wit and humor and ran the gamut from light irony and a case sarcasm to zotero, outright mockery and scorn. They also featured a popular idiom and Dissertation sur la conversational tone and made use of literary devices such as characterization, dialog, dramatization, and narrative voice. Dissertation Referencing? They became a sensation and attracted the essay for colleges on educational, amused attention of readers throughout France. Who, people wondered, is Dissertation this clever fellow Montalte? The Jesuits, stunned and slow to respond, seemed to have met their intellectual match. During the same week that Pascal’s fifth provinciale (a polemic against Jesuit casuistry) was published, and essay just when rumors of new antagonism and Dissertation royal disfavor with Jansenism began to circulate, an extraordinary event occurred at Port-Royal.

As a gift from a benefactor, the community had accepted and Write term papers extra agreed to referencing zotero, display a holy relic – a true thorn, so it was claimed, from the Savior’s crown. Partly as an act of faith and partly out of writing essay desperation, Pascal’s ten-year-old niece Marguerite, Gilberte’s daughter, was put forward to receive a healing incision from the holy object. For more than three years she had suffered from a lacrimal fistula, a horrible swelling or tumor around her eye that, according to her physicians, had no known cure and was thought to be treatable if at all only by cauterization with a red hot stylus. Yet remarkably, within a few days of being pricked by the sacred thorn, Marguerite’s eye completely healed. The seeming miracle excited the Pascal family and the entire Port-Royal community; news of the event soon spread outside the walls of Dissertation Port-Royal and Write term papers around the nation.

After an inquiry, the cure was confirmed as a bona fide miracle and Dissertation referencing officially accepted as such. Port-Royal rejoiced, and for a while the antagonism against it from the Descriptive writing essay jim carrey, larger Catholic community abated. Dissertation Referencing? Pascal regarded the miracle as a sign of divine favor for papers for cash his Lettres project and for referencing the cause of Jansenism in general. It also confirmed his belief in miracles, a belief that would form part of the foundation for his view of religious faith as set forth in the Pens ees . Despite the auspicious sign of heavenly favor, and wikipedia even though the Lettres were brilliantly successful in zotero, the short term, they failed in Write papers, their ultimate goal of vindicating Arnauld and Port-Royal. A papal “bull” condemning Jansenism was issued by Alexander VII in October of 1656 and approved in France in December of 1657.

An official oath decreeing that Jansenist doctrine was contaminated by heresy was circulated and all French priests, monks, and Dissertation referencing zotero nuns, including the Port-Royalists and Pascal’s sister Jacqueline, were compelled to sign. In 1660 the “little schools” of Port Royal, renowned for excellence and models of essay progressive education, were closed. Referencing? In 1661 the monastery was no longer allowed to accept novices. Early in the next century the abbey would be abolished, the community of worshippers disbanded, and the buildings razed. Study? Overwhelmed by referencing a combined force of royal politics and papal power, Port-Royal would lie in ruins and Jansenism, though it would inspire a few random offshoots and latter-day imitations, would find itself largely reduced to an interesting but brief chapter in the history of French Catholicism.

Meanwhile, in the spring of 1658, as he was studying the Bible and doing preparatory work for what was to be his magnum opus – the Completing a case vs survey, great Apology for Christianity that would become the Pensees – Pascal turned his attention once again to mathematics and to referencing zotero, the problem of the roulette or cycloid. Gilberte blames this “reversion” to worldly pursuits on Pascal’s physicians, who recommended that he leave off his serious theological investigations for lighter activities. She also claims that the solution to the problem, which had challenged the likes of How to write argument paper Galileo, Torricelli, and Descartes, came to him almost despite himself and during a bout of sleeplessness caused by Dissertation zotero a toothache. She finally alleges that Pascal decided to make his discovery public only for colleges on educational goals, when he was at length persuaded by others that it was God’s will. Gilberte’s claims are questionable. What is Dissertation referencing known is that when Pascal, under the pseudonym Amos Dettonville, actually did publish his solution, which was done within the context of a contest or challenge that he had thrown out to some of the best mathematical minds of Europe, the result was a controversy that occupied his time and energy for several months and which distracted him from working on his new project. The Pensees occupied Pascal’s final years and were undertaken at a time when his health, which was never robust, deteriorated and grew progressively worse. Originally conceived as a comprehensive defense of the Christian faith against non-believers, the work in How to paper written, its existing form is a rich assortment of referencing zotero notes, fragments, aphorisms, homilies, short essays, sermonettes, and apercus that even in their disorganized and unfinished state constitute a powerful and fascinating contribution to philosophy, theology, and literary art. Pascal worked determinedly on the Pensees to the extent that his health permitted him, which was unfortunately not very often or for very long. By early 1659 he was already seriously ill and could work for only short spurts before succumbing to mental and Descriptive physical exhaustion.

His condition improved somewhat a year later when he was moved from referencing, Paris to his native Clermont, but this relief lasted only a few months. When he returned to Write term papers, Paris he mustered enough energy to work out his plan for a public shuttle system of omnibuses for the city. When this novel idea was realized and put into actual operation in 1662, Paris had the first such transit system in Dissertation, the world. The last two years of Pascal’s life were spent in Paris under the care and supervision of How to a good argument paper Gilberte and Florin, who had taken a home nearby. It was a grim period for all the Pascals; Jacqueline died in 1661, only a few months after being forced to subscribe to Dissertation referencing zotero, the formulary condemning Jansen’s Augustinus as heretical. As Pascal’s physical health declined, his mental powers weakened and How to a good paper written his personal habits and spiritual outlook became even more harsh and austere. According to Gilberte, he regarded any sort of Dissertation referencing zotero dining pleasure or gastronomic delight as a hateful form of sensuality and adopted the (very un-Gallic) view that one should eat strictly for Descriptive essay jim carrey nourishment and not for enjoyment. He championed the ideal of poverty and claimed that one should prefer and use goods crafted by the poorest and most honest artisans, not those manufactured by the best and most accomplished.

He purged his home of luxuries and pretty furnishings and took in a homeless family. He even cautioned Gilberte not to be publicly affectionate with her children – on grounds that caresses can be a form of sensuality, dependency, and self-indulgence. In his opinion, a life devoted to Dissertation referencing, God did not allow for close personal attachments – not even to family. During his last days he burned with fever and colic. His doctors assaulted him with their customary cures. He wavered in and out of consciousness and suffered a series of recurrent violent convulsions. However, Gilberte attests that he recovered his clarity of mind in time to make a final confession, take the a good paper, Blessed Sacrament, and receive extreme unction.

His last coherent words were reportedly “May God never abandon me.” He died at zotero 1:00 AM August 19, 1662, at the age of a good argument 39. Even post-mortem Pascal was unable to escape the curiosity and zotero intrusiveness of a case study his physicians. Shortly after his death an autopsy was performed and Dissertation referencing zotero revealed, among other pathologies, stomach cancer, a diseased liver, and brain lesions. Nor after death, was he granted peace from the a good written, still ongoing crossfire between Jesuits and Port-Royal. Dissertation Zotero? Was Pascal, it was asked, truly orthodox and a good Catholic? A sincere believer and supporter of the powers of the Pope and the priesthood and Completing study the efficacious intervention of the Saints? Did he reject the Jansenist heresy on his deathbed and accept a more moderate and forgiving theology? Those questions have been taken up and debated by a succession of biographers, critics, latter-day devil’s advocates, and posthumous grand inquisitors. Dissertation Referencing Zotero? His works have fared better, having received, during the three and a half centuries since his death, first-rate editorial attention, a number of superb translations, and an abundance of expert scholarly commentary.

The Pensees and the Provincial Letters have earned him a place in Descriptive, the pantheon of Dissertation zotero French philosophical non-fiction alongside names like Montaigne, Descartes, Voltaire, Rousseau, and Sartre. Pascal’s Provincial Letters (henceforth Letters or provinciales ) are a series of 18 letters plus a fictional “Reply” and an unfinished fragment composed and published between January, 1656, and March, 1657. Cleanliness? Their aim was to defend the Jansenist community of Port-Royal and its principal spokesman and spiritual leader Antoine Arnauld from defamation and accusations of Dissertation referencing zotero heresy while at vs survey the same time leading a counter-offensive against the accusers (mainly the Jesuits). Polemical exchanges, often acrimonious and personal, were a common feature of the 17 th -century theological landscape. Pascal ventured into this particular fray with a unique set of weapons – a mind honed by Dissertation zotero mathematical exercise and scientific debate, a pointed wit, and sharp-edged literary and dramatic skills. In the background of the letters stand two notable events: (1) In May of 1653, Pope Innocent X in Cleanliness essay wikipedia, a bull entitled Cum Occasione declared five propositions supposedly contained in Cornelius Jansen’s Augustinus to be heretical. (2) In January of 1656, after a long and heated trial, Arnauld, who had repeatedly denied that the five propositions were in Jansen’s text, was officially censured and expelled from the zotero, Sorbonne.

The five propositions can be stated as follows: 1. Even the just, no matter how hard they may strive, lack the power and grace to keep all the Write papers extra, commandments. 2. In our fallen condition it is Dissertation referencing zotero impossible for us to vs survey, resist interior grace. 3. Referencing Zotero? In order to deserve merit or condemnation we must be free from external compulsion though not from Cleanliness wikipedia hospitals, internal necessity. 4. It is heresy to say that we can either accept grace or resist it. 5. Christ did not die for Dissertation referencing everyone, but only for the elect. Two separate questions were at stake: (1) Are the propositions actually in Jansen, if not explicitly and verbatim , then implicitly in meaning or intention?

This was the Cleanliness wikipedia, so-called question of fact ( de fait ). (2) Are the propositions, as plainly and ordinarily understood, indeed heretical? This was the question of right or law ( de droit ). Referencing? The Port-Royal position was yes in the case of the second question, no in the case of the first. Arnauld claimed that the propositions do not occur, verbatim or otherwise, anywhere in Jansen’s text, but he acknowledged that if they did occur there (or for that matter anywhere), they were indeed heretical. Despite the fact that he disavowed any support for the five propositions, he and the Port-Royal community as a whole stood under suspicion of secretly approving, if not openly embracing them. Such was the situation that Pascal found himself in when he sat down to compose the first provinciale . What he produced was something utterly new in the annals of religious controversy. In place of the write written, usual fury and technical quibbling, he adopts a tone of easy-going candor and colloquial simplicity. He presents himself as a modest, ordinary, private citizen (originally anonymous, but later identified in Dissertation zotero, the collected letters by the pseudonym Louis de Montalte) who is writing from writing essay, Paris to a “provincial friend.” “Montalte’s” purpose is to pass along his personal observations, insights, and Dissertation referencing zotero commentary on the learned and mighty disputes that recently took place at the Sorbonne. In essence, via his fictional persona, Pascal provides an account of Dissertation guerre l’affaire Arnauld and the case against Jansenism as viewed by a coolly observant, playful outsider.

In the course of the letter, Pascal/Montalte introduces a series of fictional interlocutors who explain or advocate for the Jansenist, Jesuit, and Thomistic views on a range of theological issues, most notably the doctrines of sufficient grace vis-a-vis efficacious grace and the notion of proximate power. These happen to be exactly the sort of deeply esoteric, highly technical, theological matters that “Montalte” and his “provincial friend” (and thus, by extension and more importantly, his target audience of plain-spoken, commonsense, fellow citizens) were likely to find strained, incomprehensible, and somewhat silly. Through devices of interview and dialogue Montalte manages to present these issues in relatively clear, understandable terms and persuade the reader that the Jansenist and Thomist views on each are virtually identical and Dissertation zotero perfectly orthodox. A Good Written? He goes on to show that any apparent discrepancy between the two positions – and in fact the whole attack on Jansenism and Arnauld – is based not on doctrine, but is Dissertation entirely political and personal, a product of Jesuit calumny and conspiracy. Writing Jim Carrey? In effect, a complicated theological conflict is presented in the form of Dissertation zotero a simple human drama. Completing A Case Study? Irony and stinging satire are delivered with the suave aplomb of a Horatian epistle. Not all of the provinciales deal with the same issues and Dissertation zotero concerns as the first.

Nor do they all display the same playful style and tone of “ plaisanterie ” that Voltaire so much admired. In fact some of the later letters, far from being breezy and argument affable, are passionate and achieve sublime eloquence; others are downright vicious and blistering in their attack. Letters 1-3 offer a defense of Arnauld, challenging his trial and Dissertation censure. Letter 4, pitting a Jesuit against a Jansenist, serves as a bridge between provinciales 1-3 and Descriptive jim carrey 5-10. Letters 5-10 attack Jesuit casuistry and doctrine; in Dissertation referencing, them Montalte accuses the Society of hypocrisy and moral laxity and of placing ease of conscience and the glory of the Order above true Christian duty and love of God. Letters 11-16 are no longer addressed to the “provincial friend,” but instead address the Jesuit fathers directly. Letter 14 includes an extended discussion of both natural and divine law and makes an important ethical distinction between homicide, capital punishment, and suicide.

Letter 16 ends with Pascal’s famous apology for Dissertation guerre prolixity: “The present letter is a very long one, simply because I had no leisure to make it shorter.”) Letters 17 and Dissertation zotero 18 are addressed to Father Annat, SJ, confessor to the King, and are direct and personal. Here Pascal virtually abandons the artifice of “Montalte” and seems almost to Scholarship for colleges and career, come forward in his own person. In Letter 17, a virtual reprise and summation of the case of the five propositions, he repeats once again that he writes purely as a private citizen and denies that he is a member of Port Royal. Dissertation? Since Pascal was neither a monk nor a solitaire within the community, the Write term papers for cash extra, claim is technically accurate, though it arguably leaves him open to the same charges of truth-bending and casuistry that he levels against zotero, the Jesuits. Although the Letters gained a wide readership and enjoyed a period of popular success, they failed to achieve their strategic goal of preserving Port-Royal and Jansenist doctrine from external attack. Guerre? They also had a few unfortunate, unintended consequences. They were blamed, for instance, for stirring up cynicism, disrespect, and even contempt for the clergy in zotero, the minds of write a good paper ordinary citizens. Dissertation Referencing Zotero? Quickly translated into English and Latin, they also became popular with Protestant readers happy to extend Pascal’s wounding attack on Jesuit morality into Write term papers for cash extra a satirical broadside against Catholicism as a whole.

After the publication of the provinciales , the term Jesuitical would become synonymous with crafty and subtle and the words casuistry and casuistical would never again be entirely free from a connotation of Dissertation referencing sophistry and Completing excuse-making. Banned by order of Louis XIV in 1660 and placed on Dissertation referencing the Index and burned by the Inquisition, the provinciales nevertheless lived on underground and abroad with their popularity undimmed. Today, the essay for colleges, provinciales retain documentary value both as relics of Jansenism and as surviving specimens of 17 th -century religious polemic, but modern readers prize them mainly for their literary excellence. They represent the original model not only for the genre of Dissertation referencing zotero satirical non-fiction, but for term for cash extra classic French prose style in all other genres as well. Rabelais and Montaigne were basically inimitable and far too quirky and idiosyncratic to serve as a style model for Dissertation later writers.

Pascal’s combination of brisk clarity and concise elegance set a pattern for French authors from La Rochefoucauld, Voltaire, and Diderot to a case study, Anatole France. Even Paul Valery, arguably Pascal’s most severe critic, excoriated his predecessor in a prose style heavily indebted to him. Boileau claimed to base his own terse and vigorous poetic style on the prose of the provinciales : “If I write four words,” he said, “I efface three,” which had been Pascal’s habit as well. Voltaire declared the collected Letters to be “the best-written book” yet to appear in France. D’Alembert also cherished the work but wished that Pascal had aimed his sharp wit and irony at his own absurd beliefs. He argued that Jansenism is every bit as “shocking,” and as deserving of scorn and ridicule, as the doctrines of Molina and the Jesuits. Of Pascal’s modern readers only the arch conservative Joseph de Maistre, spearhead of the counter-Enlightenment, utterly scorned the work, calling Jansenism a “vile” and “unblushing” heresy and finding the style of the Letters rancorous and bitter. In the end, it’s unfortunate that the principal debate in the provinciales was theological rather than philosophical, for referencing zotero it would have been useful and interesting to have Pascal’s candid discussion of free will vs. On Educational And Career Goals? psychological determinism, instead of a tortuous doctrinal showdown between efficacious and Dissertation referencing zotero sufficient grace. Jansen’s own formula – that “man irresistibly, although voluntarily, does either good or evil, according as he is dominated by grace or by concupiscence” – is paradoxical and tries to have it both ways. (Can an act be both voluntary and irresistible?) Pascal also seems equivocal on the issue, though he insists that his views are consistent with Catholic orthodoxy.

He wrestled with the problem of grace and free will not only in the Letters, but also in writing essay jim carrey, portions of the Pensees and especially in Dissertation zotero, his Ecrits sur la grace (1657-58), where he offers an extensive commentary on Augustine and compares the Calvinist, Jansenist, and Descriptive Jesuit views. However, even there his account is referencing zotero abstruse and writing essay theological rather than blunt and philosophical and is thus of interest mainly to specialists rather than general readers. i. Plan and Purpose of the Work and its Textual History. The Pensees are a rarity among literary and philosophical works – a magnum opus by a major author that has achieved classic status despite being unfinished, fragmentary, and almost scrapbook-like in form. The Aeneid , The Canterbury Tales , De Rerum Natura , Kafka’s manuscripts all had work remaining or were incomplete when their authors died, but they seem like final drafts compared to the Pensees . Sainte-Beuve compared the work to a tower in referencing zotero, which the essay wikipedia hospitals, stones have been piled up but not cemented. The text, as we have it today, represents the assembled notes, fragments, miscellaneous aphorisms, and short essays-in-progress of what was to be a detailed and Dissertation zotero comprehensive Apology for term Christianity – a defense of the Dissertation referencing, faith against Descriptive writing, atheism, deism, libertinism, pagan philosophy, and Dissertation referencing the cult of honnetete . Inspired by the force and certainty of Dissertation guerre his own conversion and by the late excitement of the Holy Thorn, Pascal was further encouraged by the recent success of the provinciales . Confident in his powers of argument and persuasion, both logical and Dissertation zotero literary, he felt called upon to Write for cash extra, undertake a bold new project. The new work was to be nothing less than a definitive affirmation and justification of Christianity against Dissertation, its detractors and critics. It would also be an exercise in spiritual outreach and proselytization – an earnest appeal, addressed to both the Write for cash, reason and the heart, inviting scoffers, doubters, the undecided, and referencing zotero the lost to join the Catholic communion.

In the Pensees , Pascal would assume the role of Dissertation both Apologist and Apostle. In the spring of 1658, he presented a detailed outline of his project, explaining its scope and goals, to an audience of friends and members of Port-Royal. The plan was greeted enthusiastically and zotero given the group’s full approval and endorsement. Write Term Papers For Cash? The work would be unified, but layered and textured, with multiple sections and two main parts: First part : Misery of Dissertation referencing man without God. Second part : Happiness of man with God. First part : That nature is corrupt. Proved by nature itself. Second part : That there is a Redeemer. Proved by Scripture. Hospitals? (6/40). The project was designed as an example of what is Dissertation referencing today termed immanent apologetics . Cleanliness Essay Wikipedia Hospitals? In simple terms, this means that Pascal won’t base his presentation on objective argument, systematic logic, and metaphysical proofs of God’s existence.

Indeed, except for a few instances, such as 135/167, where he finds evidence in Dissertation referencing, nature for a Being who is “necessary, infinite, and eternal,” Pascal eschews most of the traditional proofs of God, even Augustine’s. He will instead appeal to the unfolding history of the Christian faith from its roots in Old Testament prophecy through its early development to the modern Church. Write Term For Cash? Further, he will appeal directly to the subjective human spirit and to each reader’s personal experience, emphasizing our existential human need for God and our feelings of incompleteness and wretchedness apart from Him. In essence, Pascal will leave it to readers to decide whether his account of the human condition and his descriptions of their social and physical worlds (not as they might wish them to be, but as they actually experience them in our daily lives) are credible and persuasive. If the referencing, reader accepts his accounts, Pascal will be halfway to his goal.

It will remain for him to sur la guerre, further convince readers that the solution to our wretchedness, to the disorder and unfairness of life, is acceptance of Jesus Christ. He will argue that not only is belief in Christianity not contrary to reason, but that it’s the only religion that is fully compatible with it. To support this claim, he will offer historical evidence in its favor from the authority of Scripture and ancient witnesses, and referencing zotero also in the form of miracles, prophecies, and figural (typological) hermeneutics. However, he admits that this evidence will not be conclusive – for Christianity can never be proved by reason or authority alone. It must be accepted in the heart ( coeur – a special term in Pascal’s vocabulary that includes connotations of “spirit,” “soul,” “natural human instinct,” and even “love,”): “It is the heart which experiences God, and not the reason. This, then, is faith: God felt by the heart, not by the reason” (424/680). Such in essence was the plan. Its execution, limited by Pascal’s nearly constant illness and fatigue, continued off and on over his remaining four years. Upon his death, his manuscripts were placed in the custody of Arnauld and a committee of fellow Jansenists.

While transcribing the manuscripts, the committee produced two variant copies. Dissertation? The original Port Royal edition of Pascal’s works came out in 1670, incomplete and referencing carefully screened to paper, avoid offending the government. Prosper Faugere brought out a revised and authoritative edition of the work in 1844. Several new editions, with different arrangements of the material, appeared over the next century. The numerical ordering used in Dissertation zotero, Leon Brunschvicg’s 1897 edition became standard, but was superseded first by the 1951 edition of Louis Lafuma (which was based on the First Copy) and then again by the 1976 edition of Phillipe Sellier (which was based on the Second Copy). The publication of Jean Mesnard’s 1993 edition gives French readers yet another excellent text. Death, God, infinity, the nature of the universe, the wikipedia, limits of reason, the meaning of life – these are just a few of the big ideas and philosophical topics that Pascal reflects on in the short space of the Pensees . Indeed, other than the zotero, gnomic fragments of Heraclitus or the terse aphoristic texts of paper written Wittgenstein, it’s hard to think of a work that packs as many provocative philosophical musings into so few pages. Yet even with its multiple subject headings and wide range of topics, the work can still be read as the deep exploration of a single great theme: the Dissertation, Human Condition, viewed under its two opposing yet interrelated aspects – our wretchedness without God, and our greatness with Him. Vs Survey? Pascal argues that without God our spiritual condition is referencing essentially a state of misery characterized by anxiety, alienation, loneliness, and Write ennui. He suggests that if we could only sit still for an instant and honestly look within ourselves, we would recognize our desperation. However, we spend most of zotero our time blocking out term papers, or concealing our true condition from ourselves via forms of self-deception and amour-propre. (Like Augustine before him, Pascal accurately describes mechanisms of denial and referencing zotero ego-defense long before they were clinically and technically defined by Sigmund Freud).

Chief among these ego-protective devices is Write term for cash extra divertissement (distraction or diversion), Pascal’s term for our continual need and zotero almost addictive tendency to seek out mindless or soul-numbing forms of entertainment and amusement. Such “distractions” may sometimes involve behavior that is term papers for cash extra immoral or culpable, for example, prostitution, drunkenness, sexual promiscuity, but more often take the form of habits and activities that are merely wasteful or self-indulgent, like gaming or the salon. They may even consist of pastimes that are basically innocent, but which are nevertheless vain, trivial, or unedifying, for example, sports like tennis and Dissertation referencing fencing. From Pascal’s severe point of write paper written view, even the arts, and especially dance and referencing zotero theatre, are but species of divertissement . Essay Wikipedia Hospitals? So are all the luxuries, consumer goods, and worldly delights with which we proudly surround ourselves. According to Dissertation referencing, Pascal, we use these goods and activities not, as we self-flatteringly suppose, to certify our achievements or add a touch of bonheur to our inner life. On the Cleanliness wikipedia, contrary, we use them mainly as a way of concealing our bleak inner reality from ourselves and from one another. Dissertation Referencing Zotero? They are a means of denying our own mortality and hollowness. (136/168; 139/171.) In effect diversions prevent us from acknowledging our essential misery. For Colleges Goals? They create a false sense of security that hides the referencing zotero, abyss or vacuum within.

On the other hand, wretchedness and insecurity are only part of our nature. Our condition, as Pascal points out repeatedly in the Pensees and also in his “conversation” with Sacy, is dual. We are one part misery and one part grandeur; and alongside our feelings of isolation and destitution we also have a profound sense of our intrinsic dignity and worth. Pascal calls us “thinking reeds,” though his stress is on term papers thinking . For thought, he argues, is the whole basis of referencing our dignity, the attribute of our nature that elevates and Write term for cash extra separates us from the rest of the material universe. It’s an accident of history that Pascal’s collection of Dissertation referencing notes came to be called Pensees . But the title is appropriate, since the work as a whole could well be described as an extended meditation on human consciousness, on what it means to think . iv. Critical Approaches and Interpretation. Criticism and interpretation of the Pensees have followed two main approaches. The first, which could be called the conventional or historical approach, is the one favored by most literary scholars and historians of religion, including most notably Philippe Sellier, David Wetsel, and sur la guerre Jean Mesnard. According to this view the Dissertation zotero, Pensees are to be understood within the context and framework of traditional Christian apologetics. Moreover, the author’s original design and purpose (so far as modern scholarship can determine them) are to be carefully reconstructed and Dissertation sur la fully respected.

Most of the biographers and critics who follow this approach agree that Pascal’s primary purpose was to zotero, articulate and writing jim carrey defend Christianity – and especially the Augustinian-Jansenist form of Christianity practiced at Port-Royal – against its skeptical, atheistic, and deistic opponents. In particular, they argued, Pascal aims to convert the contemporary free-thinker and honnete homme – that is to say, a figure much like his friends Mitton and Mere and indeed not unlike a secular, rationalistic, and worldly version of himself. The work is thus understood to be not an inner drama enacting Pascal’s own personal struggles with religious belief but rather an artfully contrived dialog with and rhetorical proselytization of an imagined adversary. Zotero? The “I” of the work, in this view, is not Pascal himself in wikipedia, propria persona but a polyphonic fiction – a range of referencing zotero literary voices and masks adopted by essay for colleges on educational and career goals Pascal strictly as a rhetorical device and as a means of Dissertation referencing persuasion. Thus, any time we seem to hear the Dissertation guerre, narrative voice of the Pensees expressing fear, doubt, conflict, or existential agony we are to understand that voice not as Pascal’s own, but as that of a literary creation or persona whose utterances are to be interpreted ironically or as presented for Dissertation dramatic or rhetorical effect.

Although he was neither a literary scholar nor a historian of religion (but more like a cantankerous version of each), Voltaire seems to have read and Dissertation understood the Pensees in this traditional way. That is, he interpreted the work as an example of Christian apologetics aimed at a scoffer or doubter pretty much like himself. Needless to Dissertation zotero, say, he was not swayed by Pascal’s arguments. To the claim that the human condition is one of How to write anxiety and wretchedness, he responds that we are neither as wicked nor as miserable as Pascal says. As for Pascal’s extensive discussion of miracles, prophecy, the referencing zotero, figurative interpretation of Scripture, and the like, Voltaire regards the effort as so much wasted breath. He even suggests that Christianity would be better off without such strained and overwrought apologetics, which he compared to trying to essay, prop up an oak tree by surrounding it with reeds. The poet and critic T. S. Eliot, in his 1933 introductory essay to the Pensees , also interprets the work in this traditional way. However, in Dissertation referencing, direct opposition to Voltaire, whom he acknowledges to be Pascal’s greatest critic, he finds Pascal’s arguments on Dissertation sur la the whole sincere and psychologically persuasive. He departs from the traditional reading only to the extent that he considers the Pensees not only as a work of Christian apologetics but also as an Dissertation zotero, example of spiritual biography, an expression of Pascal’s forceful and idiosyncratic personality and unique combination of passion and intellect (360). In opposition to this essentially historical and scholarly way of reading the Pensees , several critics and commentators, from Chateaubriand and Walter Pater to Paul Valery, AJ Krailsheimer, and Lucien Goldmann, have offered versions of How to write a good argument paper written what might be called a “romantic,” “confessional,” or “phenomenological” approach.

According to this line of referencing zotero interpretation, Pascal’s fragmentary narrative represents either a fictional portrait of Completing a case study a soul in crisis or a true personal confession in the manner of Augustine (and later Rousseau). That is, it presents a cri de coeur or cri de triomphe that provides a direct look into the heart and soul of a penitent former sinner who, after a long and agonizing struggle, finds Christ and renounces the world. Romantic readers themselves disagree on the extent to which this exercise in Dissertation referencing zotero, self-revelation is a conscious product – that is, a carefully arranged and skillfully made artifact – or, in a more psychoanalytic vein, the expression of the author’s actual inner conflicts and unconscious motives and Completing a case intentions. They also offer different interpretations of the audience or addressee of the Dissertation referencing, work. Are the Write extra, Pensees a dramatic monologue?

A private confession addressed to God? A dialog between Pascal and the reader? Between Pascal and himself? Are they truly intended to convert a Mere or a Mitton, and Dissertation zotero are they addressed only to skeptics and those lacking faith? Or are they meant also as a meditative exercise and inspiration for active Christians, a spiritual tool to help guide believers and strengthen their faith? Or perhaps Pascal, in the manner of St. Paul, is hospitals trying to be all things to all people and Dissertation referencing thus to a certain extent trying to do some or all of the above at the same time? The great Victorian critic Walter Pater compares the Pensees to Shakespearian tragedy and notes that Pascal is not a converted skeptic or former infidel who has seen the light. Instead, he seems caught “at the very centre of a perpetually maintained tragic crisis holding the faith steadfastly, but amid the well-poised points of essential doubt all around him.” The Pensees , Pater goes on Descriptive to claim, dramatize an intense inner dialectic: “no mere calm supersession of a state of doubt by zotero a state of faith; the doubts never die, they are only just kept down in Cleanliness essay wikipedia hospitals, a perpetual agonia .”

This view of the Pens e es as an interior dialogue or psychomachia dramatizing Pascal’s own personal struggle between faith and doubt is thoroughly rejected by Jean Mesnard and Dissertation referencing zotero other scholars who insist that any hint of such a struggle is merely a rhetorical pose on Pascal’s part and essay jim carrey employed for dramatic effect. Pascal was proclaimed a heretic and a Calvinist during his lifetime and has been called everything from a skeptic to a nihilist by modern readers. So to a certain extent Paul Valery in Dissertation referencing zotero, his controversial essay “Variations on a Pens e e ” was for How to write the most part only Dissertation zotero, repeating criticisms of the sur la guerre, author that earlier critics, many of them Catholic clergymen, had made before (for example, that he was a poor theologian, that he was insensitive to natural beauty and to art, and so forth). Valery seems to recognize a distinction between Pascal the author and referencing the “I” of the Pensees , but he finds the “I” of the work so artificial and overwrought that he accuses the author of being hypocritical and insincere. Thinking of the write a good argument, passage in the Pensees about the terror induced by “the eternal silence” of infinite space (201/233), he says, here is a “strange Christian,” who gazes upon Dissertation, the starry heavens yet fails to discover his Heavenly Father.

Echoing a criticism formerly made by Voltaire, Valery likens Pascal to a tragic poet who portrays the human condition as much bleaker and harsher than it actually is; who describes the fears and torments of life vividly, but who depicts its delights and joys, its moments of excitement and intensity, hardly at all. Lucien Goldmann has argued that the Completing, fragmentary form of the Pensees may be an accident due to Pascal’s death, but it also qualifies as a brilliantly achieved creative product, an aesthetically and psychologically appropriate form that not only reflects the true style and state of mind of Dissertation referencing Pascal himself and of his narrative persona but also captures the mood and temper of his time. Writing from a Lukacsian-Marxist and evolutionary perspective that he calls “genetic structuralism,” Goldmann views Pascal as both a cutting-edge, creative force and at guerre the same time a product of his personal circumstances and historical era. In this interpretation, Pascal sets up dialectical polarities in referencing, the Pensees –man’s wretchedness vs. his greatness; concupiscence vs. godliness and sacrifice; Old Testament type vs. New Testament antitype; reason vs. the heart; and so forth, all of which are polarities that are supposedly resolved and reconciled in the person of Jesus Christ. Those polarities are homologous with and essay paralleled by the larger historical oppositions of the period: the new science vs. ancient philosophy and traditional theology; Cartesian rationalism vs. skepticism; the administrative class ( noblesse de robe ) and bourgeoisie vs. the zotero, nobility; Protestantism and Jansenism vs. Dissertation Sur La? Catholicism; and so forth. Viewed in this way, the Dissertation zotero, Pensees can be seen to encapsulate and effectively dramatize the main intellectual and social dynamics of an entire era.

One of the more remarkable developments in Western philosophy is the fact that one sliver of the Pensees , a single fragment of How to write argument a fragmentary text and but a small portion of the untidy, multi-part, unfinished work that contains it, has achieved a full literary life of its own, with its own lively history of commentary and Dissertation criticism. This is the famous fragment (418/680) known as Le Pari de Pascal , or “Pascal’s Wager.” Extensive discussions of the Wager can be found both in print and guerre online, including an article in this encyclopedia. These discussions address a range of issues relating to the Wager, such as its status in Dissertation referencing, the development of decision theory and probability theory, the various objections that have been made against Scholarship essay for colleges on educational and career goals, it, and the numerous revised or alternate versions and applications that have been derived from it. Dissertation? This section will take up only two matters related to the topic: (1) the question of wikipedia hospitals whether or not Pascal himself sincerely approved the Wager and believed that it presents a legitimate and persuasive argument for faith in God; (2) the Dissertation referencing, response to the Wager on the part of a few selected philosophers and critics along with a glance at Completing study some of its precedents in literary history. Simply characterized, the Wager is a second-person dialog in which Pascal imagines an individual forced to choose between belief in referencing zotero, God and disbelief in Him. He analyzes the situation as if the Descriptive writing jim carrey, reader-protagonist (the “you” of the imaginary dialog) were involved in a great existential coin-toss game. The conditions and possible outcomes of the Wager are presented in the following table: Pascal argues that given the terms of the Dissertation zotero, Wager it is not simply prudent, it is practically obligatory to bet on How to a good God’s existence and illogical and utterly foolish to bet against Dissertation referencing, Him. For consider: if you bet on His existence, you stand to writing essay jim carrey, win an referencing zotero, infinite reward (an eternity in paradise) at the risk of only a small loss (whatever earthly pleasures you would be required to forego during your mortal life). On the Completing vs survey, other hand, if you bet against His existence, you risk the possibility of an infinite loss (loss of paradise – along with the possibility of an eternity in Hell) for only a limited gain (the opportunity to enjoy a few years’ worth of referencing zotero worldly delights). Pascal was a lifelong Catholic whose personal conversion from a case study, lukewarm to whole-hearted faith was accomplished not by rational argument but by a life-changing mystical experience.

So it’s unlikely that he himself ever gave serious personal consideration to an argument like the Wager. Dissertation Zotero? He simply didn’t need any further incentive or rational inducement to belief other than the passionate conviction within his own heart. On the other hand, it’s not unlikely that he thought the Wager might appeal to and perhaps even sway a libertine, a skeptic, or a Deist who might be teetering on the brink of belief. And that goes even more for a case study a figure like a Mere or Mitton or any of the other young gallants and connoisseurs of honnetete whom Pascal came to know in the salons and gaming rooms of Paris. After all, what better than a wager to Dissertation zotero, entice a gambler? “Follow me,” Jesus had said to sur la, the fishermen Peter and Andrew, “and I will make you fishers of men” (Matthew 4:19). Similarly, Pascal, in the role a latter-day apostle, uses a game of chance as a net to bring sinners to salvation.

The concept of the Wager was by no means original with Pascal. Versions of it can be found as far back as Euripides’ The Bacchae . In the play, when Dionysus proclaims himself a deity and demands to be worshipped, Cadmus argues that it’s prudent, even if we don’t believe him, to honor him like a god since there’s no harm in doing so. Dissertation Referencing Zotero? (On the other hand, we risk a great deal of personal hardship by essay on educational and career goals failing to show him proper reverence if he truly is a god.) Sir Thomas More’s anecdote of the Gallant and the Friar presents in referencing zotero, an inverted form a similar conflict and moral: When a gallant sees a friar walking barefoot in Completing study, the snow, he asks him why he endures such pain. The friar responds that the pain is trivial, if we remember Hell. Dissertation Referencing Zotero? “But what if there is no hell?” inquires the amused gallant, adding “then art thou a great fool.” “Yes, master,” the friar replies, “but what if there is a hell? Then art thou a greater fool.”

A comical modern parody of the Wager occurs in the 1951 Broadway musical Guys and Dolls . Professional gambler Sky Masterson challenges a group of fellow professionals with a proposition: on a single roll of a pair of dice, he’ll pay each player $1000 if he loses. But if he wins, the gamblers will have to attend a midnight revival meeting at the Save-a-Soul mission. As in sur la, Pascal’s Wager, the bet seems irresistible: there’s a large payoff if you win, with only a small sacrifice, and even a shot at salvation, if you lose. Sky wins his wager. The gamblers are “saved.”

Voltaire called the Wager “indecent and childish” and thought it strange that Pascal reduced questions of the highest gravity to Dissertation referencing, the mathematics of games of chance. How To Paper? As for the Wager itself, he points out that just because someone promises me that I shall enjoy a great benefit doesn’t mean that it’s true. Dissertation? For example, suppose a fortune-teller tells me that she has a strong presentiment that I’ll win the lottery. Of course I hope she’s right, but should I be willing to a case, wager on her presumed foreknowledge? If so, how much? In the end, Voltaire claims that Nature offers far more evidence for God’s existence than Pascal’s mathematical subtleties. Following up on Voltaire’s objections, Diderot pointed out that Pascal’s same basic argument (better to believe than not to believe) would apply equally well to any other religion: “An imam could argue just as well this way.” Indeed, by this logic, it could be argued that the more fanatical the religion, and the more extreme its promised rewards for Dissertation zotero belief and writing essay punishments for non-belief, the more powerful the argument in its favor. Although he doesn’t specifically address the issue raised by Pascal’s Wager, John Stuart Mill in his essay “Theism” provides a utilitarian defense of the concept of religious hope. In effect, he argues that in a case where the referencing, truth is uncertain and Scholarship on educational the alternatives, immortality of the referencing zotero, soul vs. extinction; existence of God vs.

His non-existence, appear equally probable, it is legitimate to essay for colleges on educational goals, prefer the more hopeful option as being the choice more likely conducive to overall happiness. In his essay “The Will to Believe” William James offers a sharp critical assessment of the Wager and Dissertation finds Pascal’s basic argument to be weak, sophistic, and Dissertation guerre insincere: . . . When religious faith expresses itself thus, in the language of the gaming-table, it is put to its last trumps. Surely Pascal's own personal belief in masses and holy water had far other springs; and this celebrated page of his is but an Dissertation, argument for others, a last desperate snatch at a weapon against the hardness of the unbelieving heart. Argument Paper Written? We feel that a faith in masses and Dissertation referencing zotero holy water adopted willfully after such a mechanical calculation would lack the inner soul of faith's reality; and if we were ourselves in the place of the Deity, we should probably take particular pleasure in cutting off believers of this pattern from their infinite reward (224). However, having said this, James goes on to makes a pragmatic case for voluntary belief similar to paper written, Mill’s utilitarian defense of “hope” and to some extent comparable to Kierkegaard’s “leap of Dissertation referencing zotero faith”. He argues that there are matters where the truth is in doubt and science is incapable of Write papers extra passing judgment as in the question of referencing zotero whether God exists. Where that choice is, in Write, his terms, live (meaning that it seems of vital interest and value to us and engages us emotionally), momentous (meaning that it is Dissertation non-trivial and has serious consequences), and forced (meaning that we must choose one way or the other and cannot simply sit the fence or stand aside), then it is lawful, indeed even necessary for us to weigh the risks and evidence and choose . In the end, James basically recasts Pascal’s Wager in a new form, re-focusing on its existential and psychological dimensions and dispensing with what he regards as its stagy and cheapening gambling metaphors. Besides his two major works (the Pensees and the Provinciales ), Pascal also wrote several shorter works touching on a wide range of topics – from study vs survey, political legitimacy and zotero social order to Stoicism and Cleanliness essay wikipedia romantic love. A brief overview and precis of some of the better known and more important of these minor works follows.

Essentially an extensive commentary on human nature and the doctrine of divine grace, the Ecrits represent Pascal’s most ambitious venture into the arena of Dissertation zotero Catholic theological debate. First published in 1779, the work was written at the same time as the provinciales and covers much of the same ground (proximate power, concupiscence, free will, and so forth), though in wikipedia hospitals, a more serious and Dissertation less cavalier manner and in a more direct and methodical form. Along with other deep matters, Pascal here explicates Augustine’s distinction between human nature in its unfallen state as pure, innocent, and naturally just, though capable of choice and error, and on educational goals our postlapsarian condition, which is in thrall to concupiscence and naturally prone, indeed practically bound to do evil if it were not for God’s prevenient grace. Dissertation Referencing Zotero? Adam was upright but free to fall; we children of Adam are weighed down by How to a good written sin, and referencing zotero incapable of rising by our own effort. But, we are free to accept grace and can therefore be lifted up. Pascal dissects the problem of free will in a similarly Augustinian fashion. Adam had free will in the sense that he could freely choose either good or evil, though he naturally inclined to the former. Jim Carrey? We, in Dissertation, our concupiscent state, are also free to papers for cash, choose. However, we are naturally inclined to prefer evil, which in Dissertation referencing zotero, our ignorant, fallen condition we commonly mistake for Scholarship essay good. Pascal also points out that through the grace of Jesus Christ, a grace instilled by the Holy Spirit, we can achieve a redeemed will – a will sufficient to Dissertation zotero, overcome concupiscence and capable of recognizing and choosing good.

Commentators on the Ecrits have questioned whether its depiction of grace (which is presented as something largely mysterious yet vital for salvation) is Cleanliness consistent with the rational apologetic approach and systematic style of argument that Pascal sought to use in the Pensees . Pascal’s essay on the “geometric spirit” outlines both a theory of knowledge and an intellectual capability or logical mental faculty. He asserts that geometry and mathematics are the only areas of human inquiry that provide knowledge that is both certain and infallible. He then supports this claim with arguments and Dissertation referencing demonstrations. He goes on to describe a certain quality or faculty of mind that he calls l’esprit geometrique , which he defines as the ability to take known or perceived truths and to present them in such a way – with such precise steps, perfect elegance, and logical rigor – that their truth cannot help but be recognized and approved by others. Such an irrefutable and triumphant persuasiveness – the ability to vanquish all doubt and for cash counter-argument – seems to Dissertation, have been Pascal’s goal in all his writings, whether on scientific subjects or in matters of theological dispute. In any case, the “geometric spirit” is How to a good argument written both a prominent characteristic of Dissertation referencing zotero Pascal’s own genius as well as an important epistemological idea (illustrating both the powers and limitations of the human mind) that he returns to Dissertation sur la guerre, repeatedly throughout his writings. iii. Discourse on zotero the Passions of Love. Pascal’s authorship of the “Discourse on the Passions of Love” has been disputed for the obvious reason that its subject (romantic love) and Dissertation sur la sentiments (that love exalts the soul, that those with the greatest souls make the referencing zotero, truest lovers, that secret or undeclared love entails both exquisite joy and agonizing pain, and so forth) are highly uncharacteristic of the writer and would seem to be far outside his range of interest and expertise.

Yet the style of the Discourse is distinctively Pascalian and some of the ideas contained in essay jim carrey, it (such as the distinction between the “geometric” mind and the spirit of “finesse”) are certifiably his own. Referencing? Thus his authorship, while dubious, is at How to write paper least possible, and so the referencing zotero, question for his critics and biographers becomes: how to account for a work that seems so utterly contrary to Pascal’s own modest habits and reputation, so much more in the spirit of the Scholarship essay for colleges on educational, salons of Paris rather than the Dissertation referencing, cells of Port-Royal? The most popular way of Scholarship essay for colleges on educational dealing with the Discourse has been simply to dismiss it as uncanonical and Dissertation referencing zotero regard it as, at bottom, some kind of anonymously composed pastiche that incorporates bits and echoes of Pascal along with selections from other sources. Alternatively, it could be argued that the Discourse is written in the style and spirit of the Paris salons because Pascal himself intentionally wrote it in that vein, possibly as a kind of literary exercise or demonstration on his part for essay the amusement of his friends Mere and Mitton and their circle. (One can indeed easily imagine the pair challenging their shy friend to attempt such an exercise and then delighting in his successful performance.) So even though the Discourse may indeed be Pascal’s, its content and sentiments are for Dissertation zotero the most part artificial and study insincere, many of the expressed opinions being mere restatements or variations of age-old commonplaces and platitudes about romantic love taken either from the pr ecieuse poetry of his own era or from earlier literature. Zotero? (See, for example, the medieval Rules of How to a good Courtly Love of referencing Andreas Capellanus, a compendium of Scholarship and career goals witty, lofty, acerbic, or tongue-in-cheek observations about love very similar to Pascal’s.) iv. Discourses on the Condition of the Great. Despite its minor status, the “Discourses on Dissertation referencing the Great” is nevertheless of interest since it is the only work of Pascal’s that attempts to formulate something like a social or political philosophy. The work (which is addressed to a young man of high degree) begins with a parable about a castaway on sur la an island whom the Dissertation zotero, inhabitants (owing to his close physical resemblance) mistake for goals their long-lost king. Such, Pascal argues, is the zotero, condition of those born to nobility or wealth within society: it is only by coincidence or lucky accident and by the power of custom and convention, not by nature, that they have their status. From this it follows that persons of rank are obligated to conduct themselves with due humility and must never allow themselves to treat those on society’s lower rungs with insolence or disrespect. Dissertation? Pascal concludes the Discourses by reminding his young learner of zotero his true condition and enjoins him to papers for cash, rule and lead with beneficence. Simply stated, the political philosophy expressed in the Discourses is noblesse oblige . Pascal acknowledges that the origins of human inequality are of two kinds, natural and institutional.

The former arise from relative abilities or deficiencies of mind or body. For instance, A has better eyesight than B; X is taller and stronger than Y).Institutional inequalities, unless they are sanctioned by Dissertation referencing divine law, are entirely conventional and sometimes even arbitrary and can be rescinded or overturned. That, as far as social theory is concerned, is about as far as Pascal goes in the Discourses. Since his primary purpose is to offer moral instruction to a young nobleman, he doesn’t address topics like property, the social contract, divine right theory, which was a view recently and avidly affirmed by Louis XIV, or the ethics of revolt. From scattered comments in the Pensees , we know that he was politically conservative and despised violence. Apparently his experience during the Fronde led him to believe that even oppressive order is better than anarchy and that there is no worse social evil than civil war (see Pensees 94/128, 81/116, 85/119).

v. Prayer on the Proper Use of Sickness. Pascal’s “Prayer to God on the Proper Use of Sickness” is a striking work that has perplexed and offended some readers while stirring sympathy and admiration in others. Readers of the first sort, knowing of Pascal’s persistent illnesses and chronic pain, are disturbed to find him here not only begging forgiveness for the few pleasures he enjoyed during his brief intervals of health, but even thanking God for his lifetime of afflictions and earnestly beseeching Him for essay on educational and career more of the zotero, same. Essay Wikipedia Hospitals? These readers view the “Prayer” as an expression of almost pathological morbidity and the testament of a fanatic. Dissertation? Interpreted in this way, Pascal’s portrayal of the Descriptive writing jim carrey, pleasures of life as cruel and deadly and Dissertation of disease and essay hospitals affliction as salutary and healing seem not so much holy paradoxes as evidence of the extent to which the gloom of Jansenism had darkened his entire outlook. This reading is zotero defective in at Scholarship least two ways. First, it ignores the fact that the referencing, paradoxes invoked in How to paper written, the “Prayer”—life is death; death is life; health is illness, illness is health; pain is pleasure, pleasure is pain; and so forth — are Christian commonplaces and that the rhetorical use of such figures had long been a standard feature of Christian discourse. (See, for example, the writings of Augustine or John Donne’s sermons and Holy Sonnets.) Second, any accusation of exaggerated melodrama or overstatement in the “Prayer” also overlooks the Dissertation zotero, degree to which serious illness and devastating rates of mortality – plagues, deaths, executions, amputations – were an everyday part of life in Europe during the 17th century. Viewed in Descriptive essay, this context, the “Prayer” may still strike modern readers as unnaturally bleak, but it expresses sentiments and feelings that many of Pascal’s contemporaries would have been familiar with and shared. The “Prayer” can be more accurately characterized as a simple statement of faith and humility and a plea for patience and Dissertation courage. It expresses the blend of Dissertation sur la neo-stoicism and contemptus mundi that was common in prayers and Dissertation zotero sermons of the day. Write For Cash? Christian stoicism had been recently introduced into French literature via the writings of Guillaume du Vair, and Pascal had likely read Epictetus’s Enchiridion in du Vair’s translation.

Although he remained critical of classical stoicism, he was apparently more accepting of du Vair’s version – a philosophical and theological view that holds that we should willingly accept, as a revelation of divine will, whatever fate God bestows on us. Far from being a fanatical doctrine, this was a code that even non-believers found agreeable. Zotero? Indeed most of us find it admirable when individuals who are sorely afflicted with a disease or who have suffered the loss of an organ or limb accept their condition with fortitude and equanimity. vi. Pascal’s Conversation with M. de Saci on Epictetus and Montaigne.

The minor work Entretien avec M.de Saci is not actually Pascal’s, but was composed by sur la guerre Nicolas Fontaine, a member of the Port-Royal community. Dissertation? It is the record of term extra a conversation that took place between Pascal and his spiritual director Lemaistre de Sacy shortly after Pascal took up residence at Port-Royal in 1654. Dissertation Referencing? The work wasn’t published until 1736, but it’s an important document nevertheless since it represents the fullest discussion that we have of a good argument written Pascal’s views on Western philosophy. The portrait of Pascal that emerges from the Conversation is well drawn and seems authentic, and the words and style are recognizably his own. Dissertation Referencing Zotero? Many of the ideas presented in the work can be found scattered throughout the Pensees , where they are expressed in nearly similar language and where once again Epictetus and Montaigne stand as mighty opposites: the hospitals, former championing but over-estimating the greatness and nobility of humankind, the referencing zotero, latter recognizing but exaggerating our folly and ignorance. Pascal praises Epictetus as a brilliant philosopher whose knowledge of our essential moral duties and especially of our need for patience, courage, faith, and humility is a case unsurpassed.

Unfortunately, the philosopher’s “diabolic pride” leads him astray. For example, Epictetus wrongly supposes that human reason is a perfectly reliable guide to Dissertation, truth. He also errs in holding that the mind and the senses are sufficient for perceiving and understanding the true nature and overall justice of the cosmos. Of Montaigne, Pascal remarks that although he was a professed Catholic he nevertheless chose to Scholarship for colleges on educational, forego Christian doctrine as a source of moral law and turned instead to his, admittedly fallible, personal judgment and natural instinct as ethical guides. Pascal then goes on referencing to criticize Montaigne for essay on educational and career goals his utter and thoroughgoing Pyrrhonism symbolized by the device of a scales that Montaigne had emblazoned on the ceiling of his study with his famous motto Que sais-je? (What do I know?) inscribed beneath.

Pascal argues that, in Dissertation referencing zotero, contrast to Epictetus, Montaigne’s error consists not in glorifying or over-estimating human reason and knowledge but rather in denying them any credit or status whatsoever. Pascal confesses that it is for colleges on educational and career goals pleasant sport to watch Montaigne poke holes in the arguments of his opponents and Dissertation referencing see “proud reason so irresistibly baffled by its own weapons.” Of course, ironically, Montaigne’s skepticism effectively undermines not just his opponent’s views but his own arguments as well. Near the end of the conversation, Pascal launches into Write term papers for cash extra an oratorical peroration describing how the errors, imperfections, and opposing polarities represented by Dissertation referencing zotero the two philosophers are ultimately mediated and reconciled in Completing a case, the person of Dissertation Jesus Christ. @ It is therefore from this imperfect enlightenment that it happens that the one [that is, Epictetus] knowing the duties of man and being ignorant of his impotence, is lost in presumption, and Scholarship on educational goals that the other [that is, Montaigne], knowing the Dissertation zotero, impotence and being ignorant of the duty, falls into laxity; whence it seems that since the essay on educational, one leads to truth, the other to error, there would be formed from their alliance a perfect system of morals. Zotero? But instead of this peace, nothing but war and a general ruin would result from their union; for the one establishing certainty, the other doubt, the one the greatness of man, the How to write a good argument paper, other his weakness, they would destroy the truths as well as the Dissertation referencing, falsehoods of Write for cash extra each other. So that they cannot subsist alone because of Dissertation their defects, nor unite because of their opposition, and thus they break and destroy each other to give place to the truth of the Descriptive writing, Gospel. Zotero? This it is that harmonizes the contrarieties by a wholly divine act, and uniting all that is true and expelling all that is false, thus makes of them a truly celestial wisdom in which those opposites accord that were incompatible in human doctrines. . . . Such is the marvelous and novel union which God alone could teach, and which He alone could make, and which is only a type and an effect of the ineffable union of two natures in the single person of a Man-God. No single paragraph better summarizes Pascal’s philosophical and theological views than this climactic comparison. 3. Mathematical and Scientific Works. Pascal made his first important mathematical discovery and published his first article, the study vs survey, Essay on Conics (1640), at Dissertation the age of sixteen. Barely an essay at all, the writing jim carrey, work is a one-page document consisting of three diagrams, three definitions, and two lemmas.

Although it had little immediate impact beyond a small circle of mathematicians, it was nevertheless a breakthrough contribution to the emerging new field of projective geometry. His discovery (which he referred to as his “Mystic Hexagram”) is known today as Pascal’s Theorem. It states that if six points are situated on a conic section (an ellipse, parabola, or hyperbola), and if these points are then joined by line segments to form a hexagon, then if the sides of this hexagon are projected beyond the section, the pairs of opposite sides will meet in three points all of which lie on a straight line. Figure 1: Pascal's Mystic Hexagram. This illustration shows that when the opposite sides of a hexagon inscribed within a ellipse are projected, they will intersect at three points along a straight line. (In this case all the points lie entirely outside the ellipse.) After his death, Pascal’s unpublished mathematical papers (including what seems to have been a full treatise on conics) were collected by his nephew Etienne Perier. Eventually these manuscripts were turned over to the great German philosopher and mathematician Gottfried Leibniz for his evaluation and Dissertation referencing zotero use. Leibniz left behind an extensive set of notes on the collection and vs survey registered his admiration for Dissertation zotero Pascal’s genius.

Unfortunately Pascal’s original papers have all been lost. In 1644 the Italian physicist Evangelista Torricelli, testing a hypothesis suggested by a good argument paper written Galileo, took a glass tube closed at one end and filled it with mercury. He then inverted the tube, open end down, into a bowl also containing mercury and watched as the mercury in the tube dropped slightly leaving a vacant space at the top. Dissertation Referencing Zotero? Contrary to the prevailing scientific view upheld by sur la guerre Aristotelians and Cartesians alike according to which a vacuum in nature is a physical impossibility, Torricelli surmised that the space at the top of the tube was indeed a vacuum and that it was created by the pressure of the external air, which exactly balanced the pressure exerted by Dissertation zotero the column of mercury inside the tube. Pascal learned of the experiment from his former mentor Pere Mersenne. Excited by the controversial scientific issues at stake, he set to hospitals, work devising his own experimental test of Torricelli’s results.

Just obtaining the required apparatus posed a huge challenge. Scientists of the era typically had to design, specify, oversee the production of, test, and Dissertation referencing zotero of course pay for their own equipment. Pascal did all that and then went to work conducting his own experiments and demonstrations. Confident of his results, he went on tour to demonstrate his hypothesis, which he was able to do using tubes of wikipedia different length and diameter and a variety of liquids. Referencing? He published his findings in a short pamphlet New Experiments concerning the Vacuum (1647). The decisive experiment, proving that the level of mercury in the tube was due to external air pressure, was conducted at the Puy-de-Dome, the mountainous lava dome near Pascal’s native Clermont. Write Term Extra? Pascal designed and Dissertation referencing zotero organized the experiment, but because of his health issues it was actually conducted by his brother-in-law Florin Perier along with a team of observers, clerics, and local officials. Jim Carrey? Using two identical tubes, the team measured the levels of Dissertation mercury at a base point in the town. Then, with a portion of the party staying behind to monitor the mercury level in one tube, which remained at the home base, Florin and the rest of the party ascended the mountain with the other tube and measured the mercury level at various elevations. Dissertation Guerre? It was found that the level of mercury in Dissertation zotero, the mobile (or test) tube varied inversely with the altitude. Descriptive Essay Jim Carrey? Meanwhile, the mercury level in the stationary (or control) tube never varied.

Repeated experiments produced the Dissertation referencing, same conclusive results: the level of mercury was due to air pressure, which also has the ability to create a vacuum. Pascal published a record of the experiment in a short document entitled “The Account of the Great Experiment of the Equilibrium of Fluids.” to which he appended a closing note that deserves quotation since it marks a historic turning point in Cleanliness essay wikipedia hospitals, the advance of modern science vis-a-vis ancient authority. On the basis of his experiments, he asserts “that nature has no repugnance for the vacuum” and “makes no effort to avoid it”: . . . all the effects that have been attributed to her horror have their origin in the weight and pressure of the Dissertation referencing, air, that it is Cleanliness essay wikipedia hospitals their sole and true cause. Referencing? . . . It is not on Cleanliness essay wikipedia this occasion only that, when the Dissertation referencing, weakness of men has been unable to find the true causes, their subtlety has substituted imaginary causes to which they have given specious names filling the ears and not the mind. Descriptive Writing Essay? Thus it is said that the sympathy and antipathy of natural bodies are efficient causes, responsible for many effects, as if inanimate bodies were capable of sympathy and antipathy; it is the same with antiperistasis and with many other chimerical causes, which but give a vain solace to man’s hunger to know hidden truths, and which, far from revealing them, serve only to cover up the ignorance of such inventors and to feed that of their followers. One other document relating to the vacuum that dates from this period (October 29, 1647) and which bears special mention is Pascal’s reply to (the felicitously if improbably named) Pere Noel. A Jesuit priest who embraced the widely accepted doctrine (approved by both Aristotelian and Cartesian physicists) that nature is a material plenum and will not permit a vacuum, Noel had written a letter to Pascal defending the horror vacui viewpoint and arguing that the empty space that Pascal claims to have observed at the top of the tubes in his experiments was not empty space at all but a space necessarily filled with “rarified air” or some other subtle form of substance . Dissertation Referencing Zotero? Pascal’s response is a good argument paper a perfect specimen of referencing zotero understatement and polite forbearance in which the tone often approaches but never quite crosses over into condescension or ridicule. The provinciales are usually cited as the original instance of classic French prose style, but the vs survey, letter to Dissertation zotero, Noel and indeed a number of Pascal’s scientific papers – all notable for their force, clarity, concision, and elegance as well as for their utter absence of bombast, fustian, and needless adornment – could also lay claim to setting the model.

An early paragraph in Pascal’s letter succinctly defines his criteria and argument paper written standards of truth in referencing zotero, matters of scientific investigation; two later paragraphs illustrate his tactful but forceful way of dealing with the kind of learned ignorance that Sir Francis Bacon had referred to as “vain imaginations” and the “idols of the theatre”: The rule [of scientific method] is never to make a decisive judgment, affirming or denying a proposition, unless what one affirms or denies satisfies one of the two following conditions: either that of itself it appear so clearly and distinctly to sense or to reason, according as it is subject to one or the other, that the mind cannot doubt its certainty, and this is what we call a principle or axiom, as, for Scholarship for colleges on educational example, if equals are added to equals, the results are equal; or that it be deduced as an infallible and necessary consequence from such principles or axioms . . . . Everything satisfying one of these conditions is zotero certain and Descriptive essay true, and everything satisfying neither is considered doubtful and uncertain. We pass decisive judgment on things of the Dissertation referencing, first kind and leave the rest undecided, calling them, according to their deserts, now a vision , now a caprice , occasionally a fancy , sometimes an idea , and at the most a happy thought ; and since it is rash to affirm them, we incline rather to the negative, ready however to return to the affirmative if a convincing demonstration brings their truth to light…. For all things of this kind [that is, hypothetical entities] whose existence is not manifest to sense are as hard to believe as they are easy to invent. Essay Wikipedia Hospitals? Many persons, even among the most learned men of the day, have opposed me with this same substance [that is, rarified air or some comparable ethereal matter] before you (but simply as an idea and Dissertation referencing zotero not as a certain truth), and that is why I mentioned it among my propositions. Others, to fill empty space with some kind of matter, have imagined one with which they have filled the entire universe, because imagination has this peculiarity that it produces the greatest things with as little time and trouble as little things; some have considered this matter as of the essay hospitals, same substance as the sky and the elements, and others of a different substance, as their fancy dictated, for they disposed of it as of Dissertation zotero their own work. But if we ask of them, as of you, that you show us this matter, they answer that it cannot be seen; if we ask that it make a sound, they say it cannot be heard, and so with all the remaining senses; and they think they have done much when they have convicted others of powerlessness to show that it does not exist by depriving themselves of all power to show that it does.

Pascal later composed, but never published, two detailed monographs that were discovered among his manuscripts after his death: a Treatise on the Equilibrium of Liquids and a Treatise on the Weight of the Mass of Air . These two treatises represent seminal contributions to papers for cash extra, the sciences of hydraulics and hydrostatics and include the discovery that if no other forces are acting on Dissertation referencing zotero a fluid, the pressure will be the same throughout the fluid and the same in all directions – an observation that is known today as Pascal’s Principle. It is in Dissertation, recognition of his important work in the study of fluid mechanics that a standard unit of Dissertation pressure is today known as the pascal (Pa), defined as a force equal to Completing study, 1 Newton per square meter. c. Pascal’s Triangle and Probability Theory. In 1654, Pascal responded to a series of problems posed by his friend Antoine Gombaud, the self-styled Chevalier de Mere, an amateur mathematician and Dissertation referencing zotero noted gambler. Suppose, Pascal was asked, that you are given 24 rolls of a pair of dice. What is the probability of your throwing double sixes at least one time? Mere also asked a related question known as the “problem of the points” (also known as the problem of the division of the stakes). This problem asks, if a wager game is terminated before it has been completed, how should the contestants divide the stakes?

For example, suppose that A and B are playing a winner-take-all game in which a point is scored on every try and Completing the winner is the first player to Dissertation, reach ten points. How should the stakes be divided if the game is terminated after A has 7 points and How to a good written B has 5? Pascal developed solutions to these and other problems relating to the calculation of gambling odds and in an exchange of letters shared his insights with the zotero, great Toulouse mathematician Pierre de Fermat. Together the Dissertation guerre, two correspondents effectively founded the modern theory of probability. Part of the foundation for zotero the modern theory is provided in Pascal’s “Treatise on the Arithmetical Triangle,” which he composed in 1653. (He sent a copy of Descriptive this document to Fermat during their correspondence, but it was never published until after his death.) The Treatise explains how to construct and apply the remarkable configuration (in essence a triangular array of binomial coefficients) known today as “Pascal’s Triangle.” The array had been generated and used previously by referencing Chinese, Indian, Persian, and writing essay jim carrey European mathematicians, and Pascal never claimed to have discovered or originated it.

He was simply interested in demonstrating its fascinating properties and powers. Figure 2. Pascal's Triangle. Pascal calls the square containing each number in the array a cell . The numeral 1’s at the top of his triangle head perpendicular rows ; those on the left side of the triangle head parallel rows . He calls the third (diagonal) side of the triangle the base. Cells along any diagonal row are called cells of the same base . The first diagonal row (consisting of the number 1) is row 0. The second diagonal row (1, 1) is row 1; and so on. The number value of each cell is equal to the sum of its immediately preceding perpendicular and Dissertation referencing zotero parallel cells. A Case Study Vs Survey? For example, 120 in Dissertation referencing zotero, the base diagonal (item 4 in row 7) = 36 + 84.

Furthermore, the number value of each cell is also equal to Write papers for cash extra, the sum of all the cells of the preceding row (from the first cell to the cell immediately above the target cell). For example, 126 (the number value of cell 6 in zotero, row 5) = 1 + 4 + 10 + 20 + 35 + 56 (the sum of cells 1-6 of write argument written row 4). Pascal explains in detail how the Triangle can be used to calculate combinations (that is to compute C in cases where n C r = n things taken r at a time). Referencing Zotero? As Pascal demonstrates, to find the answer we would move perpendicularly down to the nth row and then move diagonally r cells. For example, for 5 C 4, we would go perpendicularly down to row 5 and then move diagonally 4 cells and find that the number of combinations is 5. Similarly, if we calculate for 6 C 3 ,we would move down 6 rows and then diagonally 3 cells and find that the Dissertation sur la guerre, answer is 20. Dissertation Referencing? And so on. In another section of the Treatise, Pascal explains how to Write papers, use the Triangle to solve the Problem of Points. Solutions to Mere’s problems: 1. Dissertation Referencing Zotero? Probability of at least one double-six in Dissertation guerre, 24 rolls of Dissertation two dice: 1 - (35/36) 24 = 0.4914.

2. Problem of points: A needs 3 more points, B needs 5 more points. (Game will end after seven more tries since at that juncture one of the players must reach ten points.) Count 3 + 5 rows on write a good paper written the Triangle; then sum the first 5 items. That sum divided by referencing zotero the sum of all items in the row is A’s portion of the stakes. Then sum the remaining 3 items in the row and divide that total by the sum of all the items in the row. Essay Wikipedia Hospitals? That will be B’s portion. From the Triangle: (1+7+21+35+35) ? (1+7+21+35+35+21+7+1) = 99/128 = A’s portion. (1+7+21) ? (1+7+21+35+35+21+7+1) = 29/128 = B’s portion. Expressed as a percentage, A receives 77.34375 percent of the stake; B receives 22.65625 percent of the zotero, stake. The idea of mathematical infinity – of a number that can be vaguely conceived but whose properties and nature can never be fully understood – has strong affinities with Pascal’s idea of God and Completing a case study vs survey also relates to Dissertation, his Wager and to Scholarship on educational goals, his personal anxiety as he contemplates the “eternal silence of these infinite spaces” (201/233). Imagine Pascal’s Triangle.

Now realize that there are an Dissertation referencing, infinite number of such triangles, each stretching out vertically and horizontally to infinity, with each diagonal base in the structure containing within it a theoretically infinite subset of ever-smaller triangles. Such is the paradoxical notion of infinity, a concept that astounded and Descriptive essay jim carrey haunted Pascal, and which has teased, baffled, and intrigued a long list of theorists and commentators from Nicholas of zotero Cusa and Giordano Bruno to term papers, Bertrand Russell and David Foster Wallace. Although the idea of infinity can fill the imagination with dread, it can also, as Pascal points out at the conclusion of his treatise Of the Geometrical Spirit , provide us with a true understanding of nature and of our place in Dissertation referencing zotero, it: But those who clearly perceive these truths will be able to admire the Descriptive essay, grandeur and power of nature in this double infinity that surrounds us on all sides, and to learn by this marvelous consideration to know themselves, in regarding themselves thus placed between an infinitude and a negation of extension, between an zotero, infinitude and a negation of number, between an infinitude and a negation of movement, between an infinitude and a negation of time. From which we may learn to estimate ourselves at our true value, and to Dissertation, form reflections which will be worth more than all the rest of geometry itself. A discovery that should have been Pascal’s final mathematical triumph wound up instead creating acrimony and controversy. In the spring of zotero 1658, supposedly as a diversion while contending with a toothache, he took up the problem of the a good, roulette or cycloid, a problem that had puzzled some of Europe’s best mathematicians, including Galileo and Descartes, for nearly a century. Figure 3: Cycloid. Imagine a point P on the circumference of a revolving circle. A cycloid is the curve described by P as it rolls along a straight line. The challenge is to discover and prove the area of this curve geometrically.

Pascal worked out his own solution and then, as was common practice at the time, issued a public challenge to Dissertation, fellow mathematicians. Under the name Amos Dettonville, an anagram of the pseudonym Louis de Montalte, which he had used to write the provinciales (an anagram of the motto Talentum Deo Soli – “My talent for God alone”—according to Morris Bishop), Pascal drew up a list of Completing vs survey six problems relating to Dissertation referencing zotero, the cycloid and offered a prize of 600 livres to the first person to essay wikipedia hospitals, solve them (Bishop 222). Dissertation Zotero? If after a specified time limit, no solutions were reported, “Dettonville” would reveal his own. A problem arose almost immediately when Pascal discovered that his first four questions had in Scholarship for colleges on educational and career, effect already been solved by his friend Roberval. The contest was therefore reduced to the final two questions, a change that, unfortunately, was not made clear to all the contestants. In addition, some contestants protested that the Dissertation referencing, time limit was unreasonably short.

Christian Huygens and vs survey Christopher Wren published solutions, but did not compete for Dissertation zotero the prize. A few other eminent mathematicians participated and submitted answers. However, Pascal, finding none of the submissions fully satisfactory, eventually revealed his own solutions and Scholarship on educational goals declared himself the winner. Predictably, this provoked bitterness and suspicions of plagiarism or misrepresentation on all sides. Though the controversy left a blemish on Pascal’s reputation, his work on the cycloid has been admired by zotero later mathematicians for its ingenuity and elegance, and Write papers for cash extra he is credited, alongside his great contemporaries Galileo, Torricelli, Descartes, Mersenne, Roberval, Fermat, Wren, and Huygens, as having helped to zotero, solve the curve once known for its power to How to a good, attract and captivate all who studied it as the “Helen of geometers.” In 1672, after having obtained and Dissertation referencing reviewed copies of Pascal’s papers on conics and the cycloid, Leibniz attested to their brilliance and concluded that were it not for an “evil fate” (by which phrase it’s unclear whether he meant their author’s short lifespan or his absorption in Jansenist theology) Pascal would have almost certainly gone on to make further and deeper mathematical discoveries. Summarizing Pascal’s scientific and mathematical achievements, it can be said that in an age of amateurism, when everyone from priests and attorneys to soldiers and salonnieres dabbled in “natural philosophy,” he was a marvel who often found himself in a position analogous to Dissertation sur la, that later experienced by Newton and Leibniz: that is, he had to referencing zotero, communicate dramatically new, highly complex and How to write paper abstract concepts to readers who lacked his extraordinary mathematical imagination and Dissertation referencing facility. Having made his discoveries more or less instinctively, using his own private mathematical inventions and methods, he then found he had to “translate” his ideas into the conventionally accepted language and procedures of his peers and fellow numerophiles. Applying his own terminology, one can say that he made his discoveries through what he called l’esprit de finesse , that is, the intuitive mind, with its instinctive twists and Cleanliness essay turns, lucky hunches, and inspired guesswork. He found, however, that in order to communicate his findings to others he had to turn to what he styled l’esprit geometrique that is, the geometric mind, which he defined as the skill or capacity for “demonstrating truths already found, and of elucidating them in such a manner that the proof of them shall be irresistible”.

Excellence in zotero, science and mathematics, he argued, requires both capabilities. It was Pascal’s good fortune to possess both l’esprit de finesse and l’esprit geometrique in rare and powerful abundance. 4. Philosophy of Science and Theory of Knowledge. Of the many great natural philosophers of the 17 th century – a group that includes both theoreticians and experimentalists and such illustrious names as Galileo, Descartes, Bacon, Boyle, Huygens, and Gassendi – Pascal arguably was the one who came closest to articulating a coherent, comprehensive, durable philosophy of Dissertation sur la science consistent with and comparable to the standard view that prevails today, except that he came up short. As Desmond M. Clarke has argued, Pascal was torn between his love of geometric proof and pure logical demonstration on the one hand and his skeptical, pragmatic instincts in favor of down-to-earth experimentalism and empiricism on the other.

As a result he seemed trapped in a kind of philosophical limbo. (See “Pascal’s Philosophy of Science,” in Hammond, 118.) Similarly, although he seemed to recognize that our knowledge of the natural world is only probable and can never be certain, a part of him nevertheless remained enthralled by the “will-o-the-wisp” or “Holy Grail” of absolute certainty. In most other respects, Pascal’s outlook is ahead of its time and admirable in Dissertation, its self-restraint and in its awareness of its own limitations. Unlike Bacon, he makes room for Dissertation sur la hypothesis and even imaginative insight and conjecture ( l’esprit de finesse ) and also allows a deductive component a la Descartes ( l’esprit geometrique ). He acknowledges that all hypotheses must be tested and confirmed by rigorous experiments, and even if he didn’t actually carry out his experiments exactly as described, he nevertheless accepts the necessity of such testing. Boyle in particular remained skeptical of Pascal’s experiments, calling them “more ingenious than practicable.” He especially marveled at the availability of 40-ft. Torricelli tubes and of brass fittings engineered to Dissertation, nearly microscopic precision. Attempting to reproduce one of Pascal’s hydrostatic tests involving a fly in a chamber of water, Boyle attests that “upon tryal with a strong flie” the creature “presently drowned” (243.)

Pascal fully understood that once a hypothesis is tested and Scholarship essay on educational goals confirmed, the problem of Dissertation determining the true cause of the phenomenon still remains and essay goals becomes itself a matter for further conjecture. For example, take his prediction, experimentally confirmed, that the level of mercury in a Torricelli tube will decline as altitude increases. Pascal claimed that this phenomenon was due to the weight of referencing zotero air, though he knew that other factors might also explain the same effect. Indeed, for all he knew, an invisible emanation from the god Mercury may have influenced his results. (Ironically, the famous Puy-de-Dome experiment had been performed near an Write term for cash, ancient temple to that deity). Referencing Zotero? As Pascal observed to Father Noel, fanciful explanations for phenomena are as easy to imagine as they are impossible to disprove.

In his correspondence with Noel, Pascal at one point suggests that it is fatal for term papers extra one’s hypothesis if an experimental test fails to referencing, confirm a predicted outcome. However, as he himself and wikipedia hospitals his fellow experimentalists certainly knew, there can be nearly as many reasons why an Dissertation referencing zotero, expected result does not occur, such as defective apparatus, lack of proper controls, measurement errors, extraordinary test circumstances, etc, as there are explanations for a result that occurs as expected. Apparently in write argument paper written, his haste to champion the zotero, new science of experimentalism against its critics, both Cartesian and Scholastic, Pascal wanted to at least be able to say that if experiments cannot conclusively prove a given hypothesis, then they may at term papers for cash least be able to disprove it. Referencing? If this was his intention, he was anticipating by nearly three centuries Karl Popper’s theory of empirical falsification and Write term papers for cash opposed to (and seemingly fearful at the prospect of) any view similar to Dissertation referencing zotero, WVO Quine’s theory of confirmation holism, according to which all scientific claims are at best only probable and there is no such thing as a decisive experiment. Que-sais-je ? (“What do I know?”) asked the skeptical Montaigne, a question that in his case was more rhetorical than sincere. Que puis-je savoir ? (“What can I know?”) was Pascal’s more earnest if also slightly skeptical variation. Anticipating Kant, he wondered with what limitations and Completing study with what level of assurance we can confidently say we know what we believe we know. Pascal has been plausibly labeled an referencing zotero, empiricist, a foundationalist, even a positivist and a skeptic.

The confusion is understandable and is due largely to the fact that his epistemological views are complex and papers for cash seem in certain respects equivocal or inconsistent. For example, he accepts the rule of referencing authority in some areas of write argument paper written knowledge, such as ancient history, while opposing and referencing even forbidding it in others, especially physical science. How To A Good Argument Written? He also recognizes three different types or sources of knowledge related to his so-called “three orders”: body/sense; mind/reason; heart/will or instinct, each with its own domain or area of applicability, level of certainty, and tests of confirmation and reliability. In a perfect world human reason would be 100 percent reliable and hold sway. Presumably, Adam, prior to the Fall, had such a pristine and certain view of things, such that there was a perfect congruency or correspondence between his inner perceptions and the outer world.

Pascal believes that the referencing zotero, axioms and first principles of math, geometry, and logic constitute knowledge of this kind. They are perceived directly by reason and (along with any consequences that we can directly deduce from them) represent the only knowledge that we can know infallibly and with certainty. It is with respect to such axioms and principles alone that Pascal accepts Descartes’ criteria of clearness and distinctness as reliable evidence of truth. Everything else is subject to error and doubt. A critic of Cartesian rationalism and Completing vs survey the deductive method, which he referred to as “useless and uncertain” – 887/445, Pascal was for Dissertation zotero the most part an empiricist and experimentalist who held that our knowledge of the natural world is acquired through the senses and must be tested and empirically verified by experiment. Reason also has a role in this process. Completing A Case Study? It guides our observations and assists us in the forming of hypotheses and predictions. Dissertation Zotero? It is term papers extra reason that also judges and approves (or disapproves) the final results, though it does so on the basis of empirical evidence, not deductive logic or some preconceived system. In the Preface to zotero, his Treatise on the Vacuum , Pascal declares that reason and sense alone must rule and authority has no place in the establishment of scientific truth. Authority is to be respected, he says, in history, jurisprudence, languages, and above all in matters of theology, where the authority of Scripture and the Fathers is omnipotent.

But, he argues that in the case of physical science reverence for the ancients can actually cloud the a good argument paper, truth and impede the zotero, advancement of writing jim carrey knowledge, especially when such reverence is, blind, misplaced, or overly devout. He concludes the Preface with a witty reversal of roles in the heated, ongoing debate between “ancients and moderns”: Those whom we call ancient were really new in all things, and properly constituted the infancy of mankind; and as we have joined to their knowledge the experience of the Dissertation zotero, centuries which have followed them, it is in ourselves that we should find this antiquity that we revere in essay wikipedia hospitals, others. If there is an element of mystery in Pascal’s theory of knowledge, it is in the source of knowledge and inner being that he terms le Coeur . Referencing? In scattered places throughout the Pensees he makes reference to essay, a logique du coeur or an ordre du coeur . But what exactly he means by Dissertation zotero such phrases he never clearly explains. The term coeur appears most famously in fragment 423/680: The heart has its reasons, which reason does not know. We feel it in a thousand things.

I say that the heart naturally loves the Universal Being, and also itself naturally, according as it gives itself to them; and it hardens itself against one or the other at its will. You have rejected the one, and term papers extra kept the other. Is it by reason that you love yourself? “The heart has its reasons, which reason doesn’t know.” Not only has Pascal’s famous aphorism become an oft-quoted cliche, it has also managed to enter and even permeate popular culture in Dissertation, the form of guerre song lyrics, as the Dissertation referencing, title of a love memoir, and as a message of endearment or benediction on bumper stickers and greeting cards. Even people who have never read a page of the Pensees are familiar with the quote, and while it seems safe to say that Pascal had no such sentimental meaning in mind, amour , in writing jim carrey, its various senses from romantic love and self-love to charity and maternal instinct, seems an inescapable association when we hear the phrase “reasons of the heart.” In fact, the Catholic scholar Romano Guardini has plausibly offered “love” and “charity” as appropriate translations or synonyms for coeur (133). It has also been suggested that by “heart” Pascal means something transcending reason and prior to it (Peters 168-171; Kearns 101-02), almost as if it were some kind of Kantian intuition, or as if it were a form of natural or divinely endowed intelligence on the very cutting edge of perception; some instinctive faculty that, without contradicting reason, can either surpass it or supplement it. (110/142). Such a faculty, if it is indeed instinctive, would presumably be inborn and Dissertation zotero thus either a part of our basic nature and something that all humans share or a special gift or grace bestowed by God to the elect. And if it is intuitive, then it possibly bears some relation to what Pascal elsewhere terms l’esprit de finesse , the subtle or intuitive component of intellect that somehow “sees” or penetrates directly into truths that l’esprit geometrique , the term papers for cash extra, logical or sequential intelligence, can arrive at Dissertation only via incremental, deductive steps. Write? Heart-knowledge would then be like some faint glimmer or trace of the instantaneous, clairvoyant understanding that the referencing, unfallen Adam was believed to Scholarship essay on educational, enjoy in Paradise. In any case, the notion of a raison du Coeur remains a critical crux in Pascal studies and posed a mystery and challenge to his readers. Fideism can be defined as the view that religious truth is ascertainable by faith alone and that faith is separate from, superior to, and Dissertation zotero generally antagonistic towards reason.

Whenever the term shows up in a religious or philosophical discussion, it is typically in conjunction with a list that includes names like Tertullian, Luther, Montaigne, Kierkegaard, Wittgenstein, and William James. Pascal’s name is often inserted into this group. Based on the foregoing definition of Completing vs survey fideism, Pascal does not fit into Dissertation referencing such a list, though the tendency to include him is understandable. Cleanliness Essay Wikipedia? Perhaps the most compelling evidence in favor of labeling him a fideist is the striking fact of his midnight conversion and “Night of Fire,” the zotero, powerful, visionary experience, clearly more mystical than rational, on the basis of which he wound up explicitly rejecting “the god of the philosophers.” However, just because the medium or process through which a belief is achieved may not be rational, doesn’t mean that the belief itself is unreasonable. For Pascal, that belief was his acceptance of writing essay Jesus Christ as his Lord and Savior. Kekule discovered the shape and structure of the benzene molecule in a dream. Though his means of discovery was non-rational, what he discovered was quite reasonable and proved true.

Another reason why Pascal’s religious views are sometimes confused with fideism is Dissertation referencing his notion of an infinite and hidden God, who is essentially beyond our comprehension and understanding and whose existence and nature transcends the limited perspectives of Dissertation sur la reason and sense perception. However, once again, just because God surpasses or eludes empirical sense and zotero reason doesn’t mean that He is Cleanliness essay hospitals contrary to or incompatible with them. “Faith,” Pascal writes, “indeed tells what the senses do not tell, but not the Dissertation referencing, contrary of what they see. It is above them, and not contrary to them” (185/265). As for God’s infinitude and Scholarship essay for colleges and career goals incomprehensibility, they too surpass or confound reason, but aren’t necessarily contrary to it. The notion of mathematical infinity baffles us in the same way. Referencing Zotero? As Pascal points out, just because something is incomprehensible, for example, God, infinity, “a sphere whose center is everywhere and whose circumference is nowhere,” doesn’t mean that it can’t exist (149,230/182,262). Some critics have even used the Wager itself (418/680) as a basis for linking Pascal to fideism since that fragment sets forth and vividly illustrates the view that God’s existence is uncertain and can’t be proved. Of particular significance in this respect is the Descriptive writing essay, paragraph in which Pascal, in referencing, an observation that seems to echo Tertullian almost as much as St. Paul, candidly acknowledges the Dissertation sur la guerre, “foolishness” of the Christian creed: Who then will blame Christians for not being able to give reasons for their beliefs, since they profess belief in a religion which they cannot explain?

They declare, when they expound it to the world, that it is foolishness, stultitiam ; and then you complain because they do not prove it! If they proved it, they would not keep their word; it is through their lack of proofs that they show they are not lacking in sense. But, again, not being able to prove or give a convincing explanation for Dissertation referencing zotero a belief is not quite the same thing as saying that the belief is incompatible with or contrary to reason. Conspiracy theories are typically lamely supported and Scholarship essay for colleges impossible to Dissertation, prove, but they are seldom implausible or illogical. Moreover, it is not just a fideistic claim, but a perfectly orthodox Catholic view (and indeed a widely observable fact) that reason has limits; that it is indeed, as Pascal claims, unreasonable to trust reason too much. “Reason's last step is the recognition that there are an How to write a good written, infinite number of things which are beyond it.” (188/220.) Pascal eschewed metaphysical proofs of God’s existence not on fideistic grounds because he thought that, as rational constructions, they were contrary to faith, but because he felt they were emotionally sterile and too abstruse and technical to persuade a non-believer: The metaphysical proofs for Dissertation the existence of God are so remote from human reasoning and Cleanliness so involved that they make little impact, and, even if they did help some people, it would only be for the moment during which they watched the Dissertation referencing zotero, demonstration, because an hour later they would be afraid they had made a mistake. Scholarship Essay For Colleges On Educational? (190/222) And this is Dissertation zotero why I shall not undertake here to prove by reasons from nature either the existence of Completing a case study vs survey God, or the Dissertation referencing, Trinity or the immortality of the soul, or anything of that kind: not just because I should not feel competent to find in nature arguments which would convince hardened atheists, but also because such knowledge, without Christ, is useless and sterile. Even if someone were convinced that the proportions between numbers are immaterial, eternal truths, depending on term extra a first truth in referencing, which they subsist, called God, I should not consider that he made much progress towards his salvation. The Christian's God does not consist merely of a God who is the author of mathematical truths and the order of the elements.

That is the portion of the heathen and Epicureans. (449/690) In the write a good paper written, end, the strongest reason for denying Pascal a place within fideism is that he believed that even the most “irrational” proofs of Christianity – the prophesies, miracles, typological confirmations, and so forth – were not only not contrary to reason but were in fact perfectly compatible with it. (He declared the Dissertation referencing, Old Testament and New Testament prophesies “the weightiest proof” of Jesus’ divinity – 335/368.) That Christianity is reasonable though not provable by reason effectively summarizes one of the central arguments of the entire Pensees . Pascal is frequently included in Completing a case study, the ranks of “existentialist” philosophers, alongside names like Augustine, Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, Heidegger, and Sartre. Again it can be asked (as it was in the case of his alleged affiliation with fideism) whether he belongs in such a list . Once again, the strict, technical response would seem to be that he isn’t an existentialist–although in this case the zotero, label is arguably more appropriate and Cleanliness essay may even be justified. If a defining attribute of existentialism is endorsement of Sartre’s maxim that “existence precedes essence,” then Pascal doesn’t qualify. For in his view human beings enter the world with a largely defined and determined nature and a destiny that is partly charted, partly free. Referencing? We are made in God’s image–and thus capable of rational thought and freedom of choice–butour reason is clouded, and our wills are depraved. We are broken creatures and Scholarship essay on educational would be hopelessly lost if it were not for divine grace. If such a view of the Dissertation, human condition is Descriptive essay incompatible with existentialism, then Pascal is no existentialist.

On the other hand, if Augustine and Kierkegaard (or for that matter any Christian thinker) can be considered existentialists in Dissertation zotero, some broad sense, then it is hard to see why Pascal might not also qualify. Like Augustine and Kierkegaard, he emphasizes the priority of the individual and the deeply personal character of our choice to believe. Like them, he values and personally exemplifies an extreme inwardness , indeed at times displays an almost fanatical absorption in Write term papers, his mental and spiritual life. And even if he couldn’t fully accept the assertion that existence precedes essence , he could at least approve Sartre’s accompanying claim that even a tiny increment of free will is decisive. As Sartre puts the Dissertation referencing, case, “if we are not entirely determined, then we are in effect wholly free.” Pascal would agree, though he would attribute this freedom to divine grace rather than accepting it as a mere donnee or product of happenstance. The Confessions , with its focus on the self and personal identity, and especially on essay for colleges and career goals the self as a cumulative record, inscribed in memory, of our life-altering decisions and events, is conceivably the first existentialist text. And in their strange way Kierkegaard’s pseudonymous texts, despite being oblique and seemingly self-effacing, also represent a form of personal confession and spiritual autobiography. The Pensees stands as an intermediate text in this series, an experiment in autobiographical apologetics linking the direct, confessional style of Dissertation referencing Augustine with the multiple personae, lyrical vignettes, and pensive fragments typical of Kierkegaard.

That human life without God is writing wretched and Dissertation referencing zotero that the human condition is marked by restlessness, ennui, and anxiety is an Descriptive writing essay, observation common to all three writers. Another common feature of their work is the recurrent image of a vast gulf or abyss. Augustine compares the human soul to a deep abyss and likens it to the Nothingness preceding the referencing, Creation (Genesis 1:2). Without the light of God, he suggests, we are but a dark emptiness. Kierkegaard argues that human freedom necessarily entails a constant sense of Cleanliness essay wikipedia hospitals anxiety, and his image of Dissertation referencing zotero our condition is that of a person standing on the edge of a dark precipice. Pascal’s dread of the silence of infinite space (201/233) and similar images in guerre, the Pensees of void and darkness echo these sentiments. And in Dissertation referencing zotero, the background of this imagery also stands the legend of his personal idee fixe – that is, his feeling that he was constantly shadowed by a personal abyss. (This legend relates to Write term papers for cash extra, the aforementioned story of his accident on Dissertation zotero the Pont de Neuilly when his coach supposedly almost plunged into the Seine – an unconfirmed but oft-retold event that has been perpetuated and basically permanently enshrined in Baudelaire’s poem “Le Gouffre” and in Freud’s writings on obsession.) In the Confessions Augustine describes the long ordeal that eventually leads to his conversion. But his narrative doesn’t end at that point. Instead, he must begin a new spiritual test and journey – that of actually living a Christian life.

Similarly, Kierkegaard never wrote of being a Christian, but always of becoming one. He regarded an authentic Christian life as a constant trial and task. Like Augustine, Pascal places even harsher spiritual demands on himself after his conversion. And like Kierkegaard, he believes that true Christianity is an ever-striving imitatio Christi , a continual remaking of oneself in the image and spirit of Jesus. With these resemblances in mind, it’s hardly a stretch to say that entire portions of the Pensees , translated into Dissertation sur la guerre Latin or Danish, could easily pass for an excerpt from referencing, Augustine or from Kierkegaard’s Training in Christianity or another of the author’s “edifying” texts. Write Term For Cash? Similarly, if we place Pascal in a sequence of “Christian existentialist” writers, a line that arguably proceeds from Augustine to Kierkegaard and then on referencing to, say, Unamuno and Berdyaev, we find the a case study, same emphasis on personal experience and individual freedom and responsibility; the referencing zotero, same rhetorical skill and verbal flourishes; the same flair for metaphor and self-dramatization. In short, if we accept existentialism as not so much a system or body of doctrine, but as more of a perspective or attitude towards life – an exacting and indeed tragic sense of life (depicted graphically and with Dostoyevsky-like force in fragment 434/686) – then Pascal can be considered an existentialist philosopher.

7. Conclusion: Pascal’s Reputation and Cultural Legacy. “Pascal never loses his capacity to offend as well as to edify”—Harold Bloom (1). “How few,” wrote Walter Pater in what was to be his last work, a sparkling critical essay on Pascal, “how select, are the literary figures who have earned the honor of receiving regular ongoing criticism, both appreciative and Scholarship essay goals deprecatory, from their successors.” Pascal has earned that honor and is of that rare and select company, having acquired during the nearly four centuries since his birth a long line of admirers and detractors, including many of the Dissertation, leading names in argument, world literature. Dissertation Zotero? Voltaire, Diderot, D’Alembert, Condorcet, Sainte-Beuve, Chateaubriand, Nietzsche, Tolstoy, T.S. Eliot, Borges, Bertrand Russell, Paul Valery, Harold Bloom – the list of important writers and thinkers who have studied Pascal and gone on hospitals to voice their appreciation or discontent could be extended literally for pages. In his introductory essay to the Pensees published in Dissertation referencing zotero, 1933, Eliot referred to Pascal as “one of those writers who will be and Write papers for cash who must be studied afresh by men in every generation. Referencing? It is not he who changes, but we who change.

It is Completing a case study vs survey not our knowledge of him that increases, but our world that alters and referencing our attitudes towards it.” (355) For some reason Eliot assumed that our knowledge of Pascal was basically complete eighty years ago and that modern scholarship would do little to alter or augment our understanding of his life and work. On this point he was quite mistaken. In fact, on the contrary, owing to the biographical and textual labors of essay scholars like Lafuma, Sellier, and Mesnard, students of Pascal today have a much fuller understanding of the author’s personal life, family, medical history, intellectual and religious development, and social milieu, as well as a far better sense of the likely order, design, and zotero method of the Pens ees , than any previous generation of readers. Nevertheless, Eliot’s main point – that Pascal poses a unique challenge to modern sensibilities – holds true. In this respect, Pascal stands as a kind of Completing vs survey existential reference mark: a polestar in relation to which we as readers are able (and in Eliot’s opinion obliged) to locate ourselves.

He remains a fixed point against which we are challenged to measure the sincerity and durability of our own values and referencing beliefs. Echoing what Pascal himself said about the experience of reading Montaigne, Pascal’s editor, translator, and commentator A.J. Krailsheimer has remarked that what we find when we read Pascal is Cleanliness actually something that we discover about ourselves (76). In effect, what both Krailsheimer and referencing zotero Eliot are suggesting is that ultimately there is not one Pascal, but many – possibly as many as there are readers of his texts. For example, Voltaire’s Pascal – the scientific genius and Enlightenment wit turned sour religious fanatic – is the reverse image of the Pascal adored by the Port-Royal community – the gentle saint who abandoned frivolous worldly pursuits to take up the Cross. For Nietzsche, Pascal’s maxim “ il faut s’abetir ” (“one must become stupid”) is appalling, a crucifixion of the intellect; for Unamuno it is a profound paradox and the highest wisdom. Valery’s Pascal is Dissertation a sententious and badgering preacher, oblivious to the beauty of Dissertation referencing zotero nature; the Write papers for cash extra, Pascal of Sainte-Beuve is an “athlete, martyr, and hero of the invisible moral world.” What Gilberte Perier refers to Dissertation, as her brother’s “second conversion,” Bertrand Russell regards as an act of “philosophical suicide.” And so on.

In short, Pascal’s writings, and especially the Pensees , have served less as a window into the author’s soul than as a kind of mirror or prism reflecting the different outlooks and opinions of his readers. Of course any proper summation of Dissertation sur la guerre Pascal’s cultural legacy must include his contributions to probability theory and game theory and his invention of the mechanical computer (in honor of which the Swiss computer scientist Niklaus Wirth aptly named his new programming language Pascal ). Zotero? And, one must include all the other eponymous scientific, mathematical, and theological concepts (Pascal’s Theorem, Pascal’s Principle, Pascal’s Triangle, Pascal’s Wager, and so forth) that bear his name. Descriptive Writing Essay? In addition, every modern system of intra-urban or inter-urban shuttle transportation also owes a debt to the philosopher, who first conceived such a system and oversaw its original implementation in Dissertation, the city of argument paper written Paris. However, Pascal’s most valuable gift to zotero, modern readers is Write papers for cash extra arguably his unique style. His combination of wit, irony, and aphorism, his ease and clarity, his air of someone skilled both in referencing zotero, urbane conversation and for colleges goals erudite technical debate was to Dissertation zotero, a large extent already present and on dazzling display in jim carrey, Montaigne. Zotero? The same features reappear in the writings of Voltaire and the philosophes. And today, thanks largely to Pascal, these attributes have become a part of essay jim carrey French literary tradition.

However, what sets Pascal’s style apart, especially in the Pensees , is that supplemental to his characteristic elan and luster he adds a tone of Dissertation referencing existential angst: a visionary quality, together with an element of strangeness that is Scholarship and career goals utterly foreign to the works of Montaigne and referencing Voltaire but which appears powerfully in Cleanliness wikipedia hospitals, writers like Dante, Kafka, and Borges. Pascal’s imagination, like theirs, seems haunted by the notion of infinity and by images of mystery and turmoil; by circles, mazes, precipices, and referencing abysses: “At the far end of an infinite distance a coin is being spun . . .” 418/680. “Nature is an infinite sphere whose center is everywhere and whose circumference is nowhere” 199/230. Relatively few writers, and certainly few philosophers, have his uncanny quality, using that term in Freud’s sense as the ability to jim carrey, make familiar ideas seem strange and Dissertation strange ideas seem familiar. Pater rightly called him the intellectual equivalent of Dissertation guerre lightning.

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adorno essay music Theodor Adorno and the Culture Industry, presented to the Annual Meeting of the Popular Culture Association, Toronto (March 30, 1984) by zotero, Gordon Welty. Sur La Guerre. Wright State University. Dayton, OH 45435 USA. Theodor Adorno was one of the more important philosophers of the Institute for Social Research, the Frankfurt School, which flourished in Weimar Germany. A friend and student of the Viennese composer Alban Berg, Adorno was a musicologist as well. Along with many members of the Institute, he emigrated to the United States during the Nazi era. He continued his critique of bourgeois culture, contributing to the Authoritarian Personality in 1950. He and his friend and collaborator, Max Horkheimer, returned to Frankfurt in 1953 and reestablished the Institute.

His last major writing, Negative Dialektik , was published in 1966. He died in Dissertation 1969. How To Written. I want to review Adorno's conception of the culture industry as it is found in three writings. The first is the essay On Popular Music, which was published in the Institute's organ, Studies in Philosophy and Social Sciences , Vol. IX, No. 1. This essay both summarized Adorno's studies of popular music and immediately prefigured the emergence of the theory of the culture industry. In 1944, Horkheimer and Adorno completed writing Dialektik der Aufklarung . This manuscript remained unpublished until 1947, when it came out under the Dissertation, imprint of Querido in Amsterdam.

As the Write for cash extra, authors later indicated, the book made its reputation only by degrees. It became better known after 1969, when it was republished by Fischer Verlag in Frankfurt am Main. A chapter in the book entitled The Culture Industry: Enlightenment as Mass Deception is the second item of interest to us. The third is Culture Industry Reconsidered. In 1963, Adorno gave a lecture in the International Radio University Program over the Hessian Broadcasting System which was published in 1967. This has been translated in New German Critique , No. Dissertation Referencing. 6. All human artifacts consist of Cleanliness wikipedia hospitals materializations of referencing labor; they incorporate labor and Scholarship essay for colleges on educational goals realize its intentions./1/ Thus they have two interrelated but analytically distinct aspects. On the referencing, one side a materialization of labor, a product of labor, is Descriptive essay jim carrey a use value.

As such, an artifact has utility for someone, i.e. it can serve a need of individual or collective practical reason. The exchange value of a commodity depends upon its utility, as well as upon the institutional conditions of the market. On the other side, a materialization of labor is an objectivization or embodiment of meaning or significance. As such, an artifact articulates with individual or collective theoretical reason or aesthetic sense. The monopolistic rental value of an Dissertation zotero, artifact depends upon its significance, as well as the institutional conditions which preserve the monopoly (e.g. copyright privileges).

Artifacts can be arrayed across a continuum from those where utility predominates to those where significance predominates. A piece of firewood illustrates the essay for colleges on educational, former, a book of poetry, the latter. It would be unusual but not inconceivable to foreground the significance, say the artistic significance, of the firewood. And one could always start a fire with a page of poetry, highlighting its utility rather than its poetic significance. Dissertation Referencing Zotero. We will call all artifacts where significance predominates over Cleanliness wikipedia utility, cultural products.

In particular, we are concerned here with the cultural products which made up popular culture in Adorno's conception, including film, horoscope, jazz, magazines, radio, soap operas, television serials, etc. As cultural objects become more interchangeable, each one declines in significance, loses its aura, hence declines in monopolistic rent. Since the value of the cultural object is referencing based on the monopolistic rent or, to a subordinate degree, on Write papers, the object's utility, the value of the Dissertation referencing, cultural object should decline as well. This doesn't occur under late capitalism, however. As Horkheimer and Adorno have put it, what might be called use value in extra the reception of cultural commodities is replaced by exchange value./2/ Replaced by exchange value! How can exchange value come to attain such autonomy in the sphere cultural production? Only through a widespread process of fetishization. The consumer is Dissertation referencing paying, not for the product but for the packaging. Rather than assessments of value based on the qualities of the product, judgments about the writing, qualities of the product are based upon Dissertation referencing, its exchange value, its price, its top-ten rating.

This is the height of commodity fetishism. As Horkheimer and hospitals Adorno stressed, the essential characteristic of the culture industry is repetition./3/ Adorno illustrates this by contrasting popular and serious music. As early as his 1936 essay On Jazz, Adorno had argued that an essential characteristic of popular music was its standardization. On Popular Music, written in 1941 with the assistance of George Simpson, repeats this point. The whole structure of popular music is standardized, even where the attempt is made to circumvent standardization. Standardization extends from the most general features to the most specific ones./4/ Standardization implies the interchangeability, the substitutability of Dissertation referencing parts. By contrast, serious music is a concrete totality for Write Adorno, whereby every detail derives its musical sense from the concrete totality of the piece. This is a dialectical relationship, whereby the totality is constituted of the organic interrelation of the particulars. In the referencing, case of serious music, interchangeability is not possible; if a detail is omitted, all is lost./5/ Other illustrations could be given, such as the soap operas with their substitutable episodes, horror films with their formulas, etc.

This repetition is due to the reflection in the sphere of essay hospitals cultural production of the standardized and repetitive processes of monopoly capitalist industry. Under late capitalism, what happens at work, in the factory, or in Dissertation referencing zotero the office can only be escaped by approximating it in one's leisure time. This sets the terms for cultural products: no independent thinking must be expected from the audiences instead, the product prescribes every reaction./6/ The standardization of the cultural product leads to the standardization of the audience. Man as a member of a species has been made a reality by the culture industry. Now any person signifies only those attributes by which he can replace everybody else; he is essay wikipedia interchangeable./7/ Standardization, says Adorno, divests the listener of his spontaneity and promotes conditioned reflexes./8/ To this point, the argument suggests that both popular culture and its audience suffer a radical loss of significance under late capitalism. It might be argued that the standardization of the cultural product under late capitalism is technologically determined, the same as an industrial product such as a can of green beans. Horkheimer and Adorno begin by considering, and dismissing, the Dissertation referencing zotero, claim that the standardization, the identity of mass culture, can be explained in technological terms.

Technology attains its power, they argue, only through the power of monopolies and great corporations./9/ The most powerful industries, viz. banks, chemicals, electricity, petroleum, steel, control the culture monopolies, which are weak and dependent in comparison./10/ The latter produce and market the mass culture. As Stuart Ewen has pointed out, mass society has two aspects, mass production and mass consumption./11/ Adorno stresses that the standardization of the cultural product is not a consequence of mass production. He states that the expression 'industry' [in the concept 'culture industry'] is not to be taken literally. It refers to the standardization of the thing itself -- such as the Western, familiar to Cleanliness essay wikipedia hospitals, every movie-goer -- and to the rationalization of distribution techniques, but not strictly to the production process./12/ Earlier, he had been even more specific. The production of popular music can be called 'industrial' only in its promotion and distribution, whereas the act of producing a song-hit still remains in a handicraft stage. It is still 'individualistic' in Dissertation referencing its social mode of production./13/ Rather, standardization is a necessity of mass consumption.

Popular music must simultaneously meet two demands. One is for wikipedia stimuli that provoke the listener's attention . by deviating in some way from the established 'natural' [music]. The other is for material to fall within the category of what the musically untrained listener would call 'natural' music . that it maintain the referencing, supremacy of the papers, natural against such deviations./14/ Adorno continues that the paradox in the desiderata -- stimulatory and natural -- accounts for the dual character of standardization itself. Stylization of the ever identical framework is only one aspect of standardization./15/ The necessary correlate of referencing musical standardization is pseudo-individualization [i.e.] endowing cultural mass production with the halo of free choice or open market on Write papers extra, the basis of standardization itself. Pseudo-individualization, for its part, prevents the listener from Dissertation referencing zotero resisting the standardization which is reducing him to the animalistic level by making him forget that the music was standardized./16/ This dual characteristic of popular music also proves to be significant for purposes of marketing it. In order to be mass marketed, a song-hit must have at least one feature by Write term papers for cash, which it can be distinguished from any other, and yet possess the complete conventionality and Dissertation zotero triviality of a case study vs survey all others./17/ Without pseudo-individualization, what the marketing industry calls product differentiation, the Dissertation referencing, song could not be successfully marketed. Without standardisation, it could not be sold automatically, without requiring any effort on the part of the customer; it could not be mass-marketed at all./18/ As Horkheimer and Adorno point out, modern communications media have an isolating effect./19/ This includes both social and physical isolation. The modern administration of capitalist society, with its effective means of communication, keeps people from gregarious interaction. Automobiles facilitate travel of people in Cleanliness essay wikipedia complete isolation from each other. They continue that communication establishes uniformity among men by Dissertation referencing zotero, isolating them./20/ Let us consider how this uniformity is generated by popular music.

Popular music either promotes the thoughtlessness of the masses or else provides the content of their thought. Regarding the first of these, Adorno invokes the Distraction Thesis. Essay For Colleges And Career. Distraction is a correlate of capitalism; this mode of production, which engenders fears and anxiety about unemployment, loss of income, war, has its 'non-productive' correlate in Dissertation referencing entertainment; that is, relaxation which does not involve the effort of concentration at Write term all./21/ Thus, distraction is a presupposition of Dissertation referencing zotero popular music. It is also a product of that music; the tunes lull the listener to inattention./22/ Regarding the next of write a good these, Adorno suggests that popular music serves an ideological function for its listeners. Popular music is above all a means by which they achieve some psychical adjustment to the mechanisms of present day life. There are two major types of referencing mass response to popular music, that of the rhythmically obedient type and that of the emotional type./23/ Listeners of the rhythmically obedient type are particularly susceptible to masochistic adjustment to Completing a case study vs survey, authoritarian collectivism./24/ Listeners of the emotional type consume music in Dissertation zotero order to be allowed to weep. They are taken in by the musical expression of frustration rather than by that of happiness. Adorno continues: Music that permits its listeners the write written, confession of their unhappiness reconciles them, by means of this 'release,' to their social dependence./25/ In sum, Adorno has provided a theory of the nature of the cultural product and its valuation at an appropriate level of discourse. Zotero. The standardization and interchangeability of cultural products under late capitalism leads to the interchangeability of persons in the audience. Stylization has its counterpart, the pseudo-individualization of the culture product as well as the members of the audience.

Both stylization and pseudo-individualization contribute to the possibilities of mass marketing. The consequences for Descriptive essay the audience in late capitalism are distraction on Dissertation zotero, the one hand, and a means of ensuring the audience's adjustment -- whether fascistic or sorrowful accommodation -- to dependency on How to write a good argument, the other. The significance for our times of Adorno's thought on the culture industry is becoming increasingly apparent. On the one hand, the analysis of mass culture, mass society, and the like has proven less than satisfactory. It is necessary critically to Dissertation referencing zotero, delve into the material basis of the cultural apparatus which has ensnared the thinking, attitudes, and cultural practices of vast numbers of the populace. Dissertation. On the other hand, the manipulative power of that cultural industry grows day by day. The accession of Dissertation zotero a B-grade movie actor to essay and career, the presidency, the advent of the Age of the Great Communicator -- an age revolving about the personality of a man bordering on the dementia of Alzheimer's disease -- only stresses the need for a radical critique of the cultural apparatus that has created this age and props up the referencing, chief character of this age's tragic farce.

1. Cf. Gordon Welty, The Materialist Science of Culture and How to write paper the Critique of Dissertation zotero Ideology, Quarterly Journal of Ideology (1981), Vol. V, No. 2. 2. Max Horkheimer and Theodor Adorno, Dialectic of Enlightenment , New York: Herder and Herder (1972), p. 158. 4. Theodor Adorno, On Popular Music, Studies in Philosophy and Social Sciences (1941), Vol. IX, No. 1, pp. 17-18.

6. Horkheimer and Adorno, Dialectic of Enlightenment, p. 137. 8. Adorno, On Popular Music, p. Dissertation Guerre. 22. 9. Horkheimer and zotero Adorno, Dialectic of Enlightenment , p. 121. 10. Horkheimer and Adorno, Dialectic of Enlightenment , p. 122.

11. Stuart Ewen, Captains of study vs survey Consciousness, New York: McGraw-Hill (1976), pp. 24-26. 12. Theodor Adorno, Culture Industry Reconsidered, New German Critique (1975) No. 6, p. 14. 13. Dissertation Zotero. Adorno, On Popular Music, p. 23. 19. For Cash. Horkheimer and Adorno, Dialectic of Enlightenment , p. 121.

20. Horkheimer and Adorno, Dialectic of Enlightenment , p. Dissertation Referencing Zotero. 122.

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Team and Small Group Experience Essay Karla M Ibanez COM 330 July 8, 2013 Dionne Vann Team and Small Group . Experience Essay There have a few experiences that I have had, where I have been a member of essay wikipedia both a team and a group. There are many similarities as well as differences among a team and a group. One of the biggest and most common similarity is that both of them want to be able to reach a particular goal. The team that I am currently a member of is a women’s basketball team . I am. Game , Health , Maslow's hierarchy of needs 1503 Words | 4 Pages. Definition Essay on Happiness Happiness is a simple yet very complex term; if asked to referencing zotero define by individuals, many will have . completely different definitions while some might be similar. Happiness is a feeling- a state of well-being, not an actual physical object. However, there are quite a few individuals that believe monetary possessions are what make you happy; therefor, the guerre more they have- the happier they are.

Since happiness is a state of being- a feeling; it cannot be measured, profited. Abraham Maslow , Happiness , Human 863 Words | 3 Pages. Kantor’s Four-Player Model: A Framework for Healthy Teams. ?The 4- Player Model: A Framework for Healthy Teams Teams are increasingly important to the success of . Dissertation Referencing. organizations; they're charged with everything from creating innovative new products to starting new global businesses. Nevertheless, current research on teams tends to Scholarship and career goals focus on Dissertation zotero, dysfunction. How To Write Written. Deborah Ancona, the Seley Distinguished Professor of Management at MIT's Sloan School of Management and referencing, faculty director of the MIT Leadership Center, and William Isaacs, President of a case study Dialogos and senior lecturer.

Alfred P. Sloan , Balance , Balanced line 1071 Words | 3 Pages. Organizing and Drafting Your Definition Essay. Organizing and referencing zotero, Drafting Your Definition Essay To draft your definition essay , use the sur la guerre organizer . Referencing Zotero. below. To complete the organizer, use the criteria, examples, and non-examples from your previous assignments. Be sure to write in essay on educational and career complete sentences and provide details. FIRST PARAGRAPH: INTRODUCTION Introduce the concept of the American Dream.

Explain why it’s important to define the referencing zotero concept and why it is Completing a case study vs survey, difficult in some cases to define the concept. success isn't something you chase. It's something. Barack Obama , Democratic Party , Family of referencing zotero Barack Obama 1037 Words | 4 Pages. topic that I pick is team player . In this paper I will be discussing and arguing my point of view of what a team . player is. How a team player is valuable to a company or in school. Descriptive Writing. I will also go into a debate of the dislikes and likes of zotero a team player . When is the best time to be a team player ? So hopefully after reading this paper you will be able to understand my point of view on Descriptive, the team player.Team Player When you go to Dictionary.com and look up the Dissertation zotero definition team player you will find that. Company , Employment , Job 616 Words | 2 Pages. everyone has been told to be a team player , yet there is no clear definition of what a team . player is.

A team player can be associated to any type of Completing a case study vs survey profession a person participates in while working with a group of people trying to accomplishment the same goal. In the Webster's Student Dictionary, there is nothing about the phrase team player but, the closest to team player is the definition of teamwork, which is defined as Unity of action, as by Dissertation, the players on a team . Some synonyms are collaboration. Definition , Idea , Need 603 Words | 2 Pages. com/basics/basics.html Aim of the game The aim of the game is to score more ‘baskets’ (points) than the opposition team . Scoring baskets can . vary between one, two or three points per shot. In order to Completing study vs survey score, you must shoot the ball into the opposition’s basket hoop. Rules of basketball Basketball is a team sport that involves teamwork and cooperation. There are two teams with five players on referencing, the court trying to shoot the ball into a hoop and some reserves on the bench. This hoop is approximately three. Basketball , Basketball terminology , Flagrant foul 1229 Words | 4 Pages. Definition Essay: the Good Shepherd. The Biblical Definition of the Good Shepherd: Definition Essay .. The Biblical Definition of . the Good Shepherd Jesus said, “I am the good shepherd” (John 10:11, NIV).

A Shepherd is a person who tends and guards flocks of sheep. In Bible, Jesus was not a real shepherd; however, he described himself as the Write Good Shepherd. Dissertation Referencing Zotero. Christians may question why the Good Shepherd is distinctive from general shepherd. Write Papers Extra. From biblical perspective, the Good shepherd is an emotional image that teaches Christians. Bible , Christianity , God 1274 Words | 4 Pages. Definition Essay April 6, 2012 To many people, a lie has little significance.

Some people tell lies as a way to cover . something up, make a different name for themselves, or just to Dissertation zotero make excuses. No matter what the situation, my father has constantly reminded me that the truth will set you free, and guerre, as I get older even though I am still in my youth, the Dissertation more I realize the truth and importance of that statement. Sur La Guerre. To me a lie is a form of referencing disloyalty, the less you respect the person the more you. Happiness , Lie , Roy Baumeister 870 Words | 3 Pages. Love by definition is an emotion explored in philosophy, religion, and literature, often as either romantic love, the fraternal love of others, . or the love of God based on the definition found in Descriptive essay jim carrey The Encarta Encyclopedia. As I explored the definition by Dissertation referencing zotero, means of the Internet, books, and articles I noticed the definitions changed quite a bit, but yet had the same basic understanding. The definition I found in The Encarta Encyclopedia was probably the most simple and Dissertation guerre, most basic. Dissertation Referencing. It refers to essay wikipedia hospitals love. Emotion , Family , Interpersonal relationship 1048 Words | 3 Pages. beginning of the movie though, Homer had perseverance when he wanted to make the football team , even though the chances of him making it were . clear that he wouldn’t. Despite this though Homer tried and tried over again getting back up after each tackle he received on the football field knowing that football could have gotten him into referencing zotero, college.

Heroism can be identified and for colleges and career, seen in Dissertation referencing multiple ways. A definition of essay for colleges goals heroism varies from person to person and can mean more personal to referencing zotero one that has actually. Boy , Courage , Hero 1223 Words | 3 Pages. Adrian Martinez Essay Assignment #1 Section 12 09/07/10 Making The Team One of my challenges was in my Sophomore year when I . didn't make the study vs survey varsity team because I was not in zotero good condition. Wikipedia. The other challenge happen in my junior year when I got injured a week before the Dissertation zotero championship game and I had to recover before the game. Scholarship For Colleges. When I was a sophomore I tried out for the varsity soccer team at zotero my school but I did not make it, because I was not at write paper written that level. Dissertation Referencing. Some of the Descriptive reason I did not make it. Association football terminology , Football , Play 1155 Words | 3 Pages. Midterm Essay This essay will be able international play in Dissertation zotero the NBA.

Today in Completing a case study the NBA you see a lot of zotero international . player . You see player from all over the world China, turkey, and United Kingdom. Write For Cash Extra. One international player that really stands out is the Houston Rockets former player Yao Ming. Yao is an international player from Dissertation referencing China that played in Dissertation sur la guerre the NBA. He got drafted by the Houston Rockets in 2002 First pick in the first round. Referencing. Yao is hands down one of the best international player of all. Boston Celtics , Houston Rockets , National Basketball Association 922 Words | 3 Pages. ? The World is a Canvas: A Definition Argument Essay on Graffiti Chloe Roy Grand Canyon University: ENG 106 January 30, . 2014 Art is generally seen as a canvas transformed into a beautiful and thought – provoking decoration. Genres and technique styles continue to evolve and sur la guerre, transform over referencing zotero the centuries, creating new ways to a case study influence the world through art. Graffiti is a controversial new genre and technique style that has taken the art community – and the urban streets by zotero, storm. The artists.

Aesthetics , Art , Art world 825 Words | 5 Pages. other and will work together as a team . In order to gain the commitment of people at Completing study vs survey all levels of Dissertation referencing zotero management and employees, you are empowered . to take initiatives to learn from both success and Dissertation, failure. This is Dissertation zotero, a journey of discovery that never ends. We must constantly seek to improve our approach to become a unified committed team capable of great success. Performance is Descriptive writing jim carrey, nothing more than achieving results through people. Individuals must be a part of a motivated team capable excelling in referencing their duties.

Employment , Management , Person 468 Words | 2 Pages. The excitement that the NBA brings to basketball has no rival. The great plays, games, dunks, players and a case study, passion for basketball are reasons . why the fans keep watching. Dissertation Referencing. Some people watch because they enjoy seeing their favorite players . Larry Bird, Michael Jordan, and LeBron James are some of the most influential players in the NBA. Larry Bird was an influential player in his high school and in the NBA from the 1970-1980s. He was born in essay wikipedia hospitals West Baden Springs, Indiana on December 7,1956. He had a. Basketball , Boston Celtics , Cleveland Cavaliers 911 Words | 3 Pages. Definition of Tourist/Tourism Essay.

DEFINITION OF TOURIST/TOURISM Throughout the academic and Dissertation referencing, business world there is ongoing debate regarding the Write papers insufficient . Referencing. definitions of the terms ‘tourism’ and ‘tourist’. Upon researching this matter I have also come to question the validity of the ‘tourism industry’ and its ability to meet the requirements of industrial and commercial activities due to Scholarship essay on educational the lack of referencing uniform and limitations of what it pertains to. The following are definitions I have chosen, in order of preference, to shed light. Tourism , World Tourism Organization 1412 Words | 5 Pages. Responsibility Page 1 What is the meaning of Responsibility? Definition Essay Karen Bannan Writing 101 Professor Leone . January 30, 2011 Responsibility Page 2 The ultimate word in life is “responsibility”. What is responsibility you ask? Responsibility is “doing the right thing”. Doing the right thing means living a life where every move or decision you make is all your own and Scholarship essay and career goals, you do things that will not harm others. It is a moral belief that as individuals we must behave.

Individual responsibility , Meaning of life , Responsibility 826 Words | 3 Pages. this fabricated definition of success. The businesses and the media need us to believe that having lots of money is the key to happiness, . therefore the Dissertation key to success. Writing Essay. This perception of success is Dissertation referencing zotero, only a myth in my opinion. My definition of true success is acquiring happiness and a purpose in Dissertation sur la guerre life through respectable accomplishments and experiences. It’s hard not to judge the people that we come into contact with on a daily basis. We try to Dissertation referencing zotero determine our own personal definition of success and how. Feeling , Happiness , Meaning of life 2073 Words | 7 Pages. ?Be a team player Both jobs require teamwork to Cleanliness essay wikipedia support their roles. At times they need others to Dissertation zotero pick up their work and Descriptive essay, ensure . Dissertation Referencing. projects do not suffer due to illness or absence.

Therefore, we believe that being always prepared and able to How to write a good temporarily involve into Dissertation zotero, another role is an How to paper written, important element for the smooth running of the company. The Bigger Picture Employees who have well all rounded experience have a greater understanding of the challenges being managed at referencing zotero every level of the projects. Employment , Knowledge , Management accounting 348 Words | 1 Pages. ? Team Work Team work is defined as the process of working collaboratively with a group of people in order to for colleges achieve a goal. A . successful team involves individuals who can work well together, trying their best in any circumstance to Dissertation referencing achieve that one main goal that they have set out to achieve. Scholarship Essay On Educational Goals. Teamwork means that people will try to cooperate, using their individual skills and providing constructive feedback, despite any personal conflict between among themselves. In every team , all members should. 1035 Words | 4 Pages. poetry to you is a bunch of figurative language.

In that case E.E. Cummings A Leaf Falls probably seemed like an extremely short story more that a poem. Dissertation Referencing Zotero. . Today, an analysis of a poet’s definition of poetry will be examined. By analyzing the and career goals figurative language in Ars Poetica we will capture Archibald MacLeish’s definition of poetry. Dissertation Referencing Zotero. Archibald MacLeish has won numerous awards for his role in poetry. He was an American poet and the Librarian of Congress, he strongly promoted the arts. In, Ars Poetica. Alliteration , Archibald MacLeish , Ars Poetica 937 Words | 4 Pages. ? Team Building Team building is very important for many reasons and there are certain things that a team must . Descriptive Writing. have to work efficiently. Referencing. A team is a group of guerre people that have common goals and work together effectively to achieve them.

There is a difference between a team and a group. Referencing. A group is a number of people or things that are located close together or are considered to be together, and may also share certain beliefs. Workplaces, schools and vs survey, hospitals are some of the places where teams are. Leadership , Member of Parliament 1130 Words | 2 Pages. ?4/1/14 English Composition Definition Essay : Trust What is trust? The . dictionary meaning of trust is a firm belief in the reliability, truth, ability, or strength of someone or something. The second meaning is, confidence placed in a person by making that person the nominal owner of referencing zotero property to be held or used for the benefit of essay wikipedia one or more others. But what can we really define as trust? In this paper, I will discuss how trust is used every.

Faith , Friendship , If You Have to Dissertation referencing zotero Ask 1338 Words | 4 Pages. What is the Definition of Marriage? What is the definition of marriage? Over the years, the word marriage has been challenged . from its current definition as listed in Merriam-Webster's Dictionary as an act of marrying or being married between a man and a woman. Marriage can also be defined in the Oxford Dictionary as the formal union of a man and sur la, a woman, typically recognized by law, by which they become husband and wife. The word marriage becomes a special type of referencing zotero bond between two people that share. Cohabitation , Dictionary , English language 827 Words | 3 Pages. Hockey is a fast, exciting sport played by two teams on Scholarship essay for colleges on educational, a sheet of Dissertation zotero ice called a rink. Each team has six players on study, . the ice, one goalie, two defensemen, two wingers, and one center man. Referencing. The players skate up and down the ice shooting or passing a hard rubber disk called a puck with sticks.

They score points by hitting the puck into the net. Hockey is essay wikipedia, much faster and swifter than any other sport. As the players streak across the ice, their powerful shots and passes can send the puck faster than. Checking , Ice hockey , Ice hockey rules 1405 Words | 4 Pages.